How To Write Chapter 3 - Methods of Research and Procedures (Continuation)

How to Write
Chapter 3
Methods of
Research and
Procedures
(continuation)
How to Write Chapter 3
Quantitative Research
Descriptive Research
Quantitative Descriptive Method
Statistical Description of Data
Comparative Research
Statistical Comparison of Data
Experimental Research
Analysis of Experimental Statistical Data
Types of Experimental Design

1. Single-group Design
this involves a single treatment with two or more
levels
2. Two-group Design
the comparable groups are employed as
experimental and control groups
3. Two-pair Group Design
this design is an elaboration of the two-group
design wherein there are two experimental
groups and two control groups
4. Parallel-group Design
this is a design in which two or more groups are
used at the same time with only one single
variable (control group) manipulated or changed
Types of Experimental Design

5. Pretest-Posttest Design
this design involves the experimental group and the
control group which are carefully selected through
randomization procedures
6. Counterbalanced or Latin Square Design
(Rotation Design)
it involves an exchange of two or more treatments
taken by the subjects during the experiment
7. Randomized Complete Block Design
this is designed in which a group of test plants or
animals is studied only once but subsequent
treatment is applied to determine the cause of
change
8. Correlational Design
it is used to determine the relationship between two
dependent variables (X and Y) on how manipulated
by the independent variable
Samples and Sampling

Techniques
Sample persons, events, places, things
Population group of people, objects or
events
Sampling process of selecting a
representative portion of the
population that can be the source
of data to test the hypothesis

Techniques
Essential Concepts and Steps in Sampling:
1. Determine the population of individuals, or
items, or cases where to find the data
needed.
2. Determine the kind of sample you want to
have.
3. Find out what is the appropriate size of the
sample, that is, how many of the sampling
elements are needed as sources of data.
4. Having the desired sample size, get the
samples from the sampling frame, based on
the sampling method that you want to use.
Techniques
Procedures in #3:
1. Compute the sample size
2. Compute the sample size of the population
using the formula by Slovin (1960):
3. Some acceptable sizes offered by Gay (1976):
a. Descriptive research: 10% of the population,
smaller population: min. of 20%
b. Correlational research: 30 subjects
c. Experimental research: 15 subjects per
group, 30 subjects per
group(some authorities believe)
d. Ex-post-facto or causal research: 15 subjects
per group
Two General Types of Sampling

Designs/Methods
Probability Sampling
each of the units in the target population has the
same chance of being included in the sample
o Types of Probability Sampling:

1. Simple Random Sampling
the basic probability sampling design which
means that we are giving every unit of the
population an equal chance and non-zero
probability of being included in the sample
Methods:
The Lottery Method
The use of a Table of Random Numbers
Designs/Methods
o Types of Probability Sampling:
2. Systematic Sampling
used when there is a ready list of the total
universe or population
3. Stratified Sampling
used to ensure that different groups of a
population are adequately represented in the
sample
4. Cluster Sampling
used in large-scale surveys
5. Multi-stage Sampling
used for national, regional, provincial or country
level studies

Designs/Methods
Non-Probability Sampling
no way that each of the units in the target
population has the same chance of being included in
the sample
o Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Accidental or Convenience Sampling
obtained when the researcher selects whatever
sampling units are conveniently available
2. Purposive Sampling
the sampling units are selected subjectively by
the researcher, who attempts to obtain a sample
that appears to be representative of the
population
Designs/Methods
o Types of Non-Probability Sampling
3. Quota Sampling
the researcher determines the sampling size
which should be filled up
4. Snowball Sampling
starts with the known sources of information,
who or which will in turn give other sources of
information
5. Networking Sampling
used to find socially devalued urban
populations
The Subjects
1. The size of the population
2. The study of population
3. The margin of error and the proportion
of the study population used
4. The type of technique of sampling used
whether pure random sampling,
systematic, stratified, cluster or
combination of two or more techniques
5. The actual computations of the sample
6. The sample subjects
The Subjects
Guidelines for Determining Adequate Sampling
1. When the population is more or less homogeneous
and typical, normal, or average is desired to be
known, a smaller sample is enough; however, if
difference are desired to be known, a larger sample is
needed.
2. When the population is more or less heterogeneous
and only the typical, normal, or average is desired to
be known, a larger sample is needed; however, if only
their differences are desired to be known, a smaller
sample is sufficient.
3. The size of a sample varies inversely as the size of
the population. A larger proportion is required of a
smaller population and a smaller proportion may do
for a bigger population.
4. For greater accuracy and reliability of results, a
greater sample is desirable.
The Subjects
Computing Steps of a Sample Adequately
1. Determine the size of the study population.
2. Decide on the margins of error.
3. Use the formula:
4. If the sampling is multi-stage or if
population is stratified, compute the
sample proportion (percent) by dividing the
result in step #3 by the population.
5. Multiply
Data-gathering Procedure
Data Processing
1. Categorization of data
Rules in categorizing research information
(Kerlinger, 1986):
1. Categories are set up according to the
research problems
2. The categories are exhaustive
3. The categories are mutually exclusive and
independent
4. Each category (variable) is derived from one
classification principle
5. Any categorizing scheme must be on one
level of discourse
2. Coding of data
3. Tabulation of data
Data Matrix
1. Univariate Matrix
2. Bivariate Matrix
3. Multivariate Matrix
Dummy Tables
o Statistical Table
Parts of Statistical Table
1. Table heading
2. Stubs
3. Box head
4. Body
o Types of Tables
1. General or Reference Table
2. Summary or Text Table
Statistical Tool, Processes,
Treatment and Guidelines
Statistics
o Functions:
1. To reduce a mass of data to a small set
without losing the essential characteristics
of the distribution
2. To analyze characteristics of the
population based on samples
3. To predict future behavior of variables
based on what is known about its present
relationship
Grouping, Tallying and Looking the

Midpoint of Scores and
Determining the Frequencies of the
Scores or Cases
Procedures on Step-distribution
1. Find the range
2. Find the class interval
3. Prepare the step-distribution
4. Limits
5. Midpoints
6. Tallies and Frequencies
Cumulative Frequency
Distribution
Procedures
1. The cumulative frequency are obtained by
cumulating or successively adding the
individual frequencies starting from the
bottom of lesser than or at the top for
greater than.
2. The greater cumulative frequency begins
cumulating from the highest class limit; the
last cumulative frequency should be equal
to the total number of cases (N).
3. The lesser cumulative frequency distribution
can be obtained from the number of cases
falling below a particular score.
Measures of Central Tendency

or Average
The Arithmetic Mean
o The Weighted Arithmetic Mean
o Mean from Grouped Data
Methods of computing the mean grouped
data:
1. Midpoint Method
2. The mean of the Class-deviation Method

or Average
The median
o Median from Ungrouped Data
o The Median from Grouped Data

or Average
The mode
o Mode from Ungrouped Data
o The Mode from Grouped Data
Measures of Variability
Range
o Classification:
Absolute Range
Total Range
Kelly Range
The average deviation or mean deviation
o Average Deviation from Ungrouped Data
o Average Deviation from Grouped Data
o The Variance (Mean Square)
o Variance from Ungrouped Data
Methods in computing the variance from
ungrouped data:
1. Working Formula
2. Machine formula
Variance from Grouped Data
o Methods in computing the variance
from grouped data:
1. Midpoint Method
2. Class Deviation Method
Standard Deviation
o Standard Deviation from Ungrouped Data
Methods in computing the standard
deviation from ungrouped data:
1. Working Formula
2. Machine Formula
Standard Deviation
o Standard Deviation from Grouped Data
Methods in computing the standard
deviation from grouped data:
1. Midpoint Method (ot long method)
2. Class Deviation Method (short method)
Interpretation of Standard Deviation

The most accepted interpretation of
standard deviation is within the range
from one standard deviation below the
mean (-1SD) to one standard deviation
above the mean (+1SD).
Measures of Relative
Variability
Coefficient of Variation
It is defined as the ratio of standard
deviation to the arithmetic mean;
expressed in percentage.
Coefficient of Quartile Deviation
It is defined as the distance between the
third and the first quartiles.
Measures of Correlation or
Relationship
Correlation is a measure of degree of
relationship between paired data.
Coefficient of Correlation is the ratio of
the two values, or series of values, or
variables being compared.
Uses
1. Indicates the amount of agreement
between scores on any two sets of data
2. A form or reliability coefficient
3. Always relative to the situation under
which it is obtained.
Relationship
Perfect Positive Correlation
Perfect Negative Correlation
Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient
Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient
or Spearman Rho
Correlation between Ordinal Data
Gamma
Relationship
Correlation between Nominal Data.
Lambda Correlation (Guttmans
Coefficient of Predictability)
Correlation between an Interval and
Nominal Data. The Correlation Ratio
The Point Biserial Coefficient of
Correlation
Correlation Coefficient for Grouped
Data. Scatter Diagram or Scattergram
Probability
Basic Concepts in Probability
o Basic Law of Probability
o Fundamental Principle
o Probability Distribution
Probability
Permutations
Combinations
Probability
Rules of Probability
1. The Addition Rules
2. Multiplication Rule with Independent
Events
3. Multiplication Rules
4. Multiplication and Addition Rules
Hypothesis Testing
Types of Hypotheses:
1. Null Hypothesis (Ho)
2. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
Hypothesis Testing
Types of Errors:
1. Type I
Rejecting the Ho when in fact it is true
2. Type II
Accepting the Ho when in fact it is false
Hypothesis Testing
Levels of Significance
Types of Tests
1. One-sided Test (directional)
2. Two-sided Test (non-directional)
Hypothesis Testing
Steps in Hypothesis Testing:
1. Formulate a null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative
hypothesis (Ha)
2. Set the level of significance
3. Identify the type of statistical test either one-tailed
test
4. Determine the tabular value for the test from the table
5. Compute the required statistical test
6. Decide whether to accept or to reject the null
hypothesis
Accept the Ho if the computed value is greater than the
tabular value
Reject the Ho if the tabular value is greater than the
computed value
7. Conclusion
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis Testing for Population Means
Comparing Two Large Sample Means
Comparing Two Proportions
T-test for Comparing a Sample Mean vs.
a Population Mean
Hypothesis Testing
Properties of the t-distribution:
1. It is continuous distribution
2. It is bell shaped and symmetrical
3. There is a family of t-distributions
depending on the sample size
4. The t-distribution is more spread out and
flatter than the standard deviation
5. Since the population standard deviation is
unknown, the sample standard deviation is
used instead
Hypothesis Testing
T-test for Comparing Two Sample Means
Assumptions:
1. The population must be at least approximately normally
distributed
2. he population must be independent
3. The population variances must be equal
Two-Sample Pooled t-test
Correlated samples
Testing the Difference between Two Sample
Means
Chi-Square Distribution
Testing Goodness of Fit
Testing Normality
Contingency Tables
Degrees of freedom for the Chi-square
Uses of Chi-square:
1. Used in descriptive research if the researcher
wants to determine the significant difference
between the observed and expected or
theoretical frequencies from independent
variables
2. Used to test the goodness of fit where a
theoretical distribution is fitted to some data
3. Used to test the hypothesis that the variances
of a normal population is equal to a given value
4. Used for the construction of confidence interval
for variances
5. Used to compare two uncorrelated and
correlated proportions
One-Way Classification
Independence in a 2x2 Table
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Understanding Analysis of Variance
o Sum of Squares
Methods:
1. Deviation Method
2. Raw Score Method
Within-groups Sum of Squares
Between-groups Sum of Squares
Total Sum of Squares
Mean Square (MS)
The F-test or Ratio
The Two-way Anova


Steps in Applying the Two-Way ANOVA (Raw Score
Method)
1. State the hypothesis
2. Find the sum of each cell, marginal totals and the
grand total
3. Find the square of each raw score
4. Find the sum of the squared raw scores
5. Compute sums of Squares
6. Partition of the between-group Variance into three
independent variance
7. Determine the degrees of freedom
8. Compute the mean squares by dividing each SS by its
df
9. Calculate F-ratios by dividing the MSs
10. Determine the significance of the computed F-ratios
with df associated with the numerator and
denominator of each F.
Formula by Slovin (1960):


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How To Write Chapter 3 - Methods of Research and Procedures (Continuation)

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Types of Experimental Design

Types of Experimental Design

Samples and Sampling

Samples and Sampling

Two General Types of Sampling

o Types of Probability Sampling:

Two General Types of Sampling

o Types of Non-Probability Sampling

Grouping, Tallying and Looking the

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Central Tendency

Interpretation of Standard Deviation

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

The Two-way Anova

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Formula by Slovin (1960):

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