Chapter 1

The School as a
Social System
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Chapter 1: The School as a Social System
What is Organizational Theory?
A set of interrelated concepts, assumptions, and generalizations that describes and explains patterns
of behavior in organizations.

Elements of Theory:
Concepts
Generalizations
Assumptions

Purposes of Theory:
Provide an explanation of how things generally work.
Guide research
Guide practice
Hypotheses:
Conjectural statements that explain relationships.
Use to test theories.
Guide research

Scientific Knowledge:
Propositions supported by systematic research.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Purpose of Science: To test theory and to provide reliable explanation.
 Theory

Assumptions
Concepts And Concepts
Generalizations

Variables Hypotheses Empirical

Testing

Principles

Figure 1.1: Theory-Research Relation ( Hoy 2007)

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

 Historical Development of
Theory and Thought in Administration
I. Rational-Systems Perspective: A Machine Model
Scientific Management (The Beginning) Rational-Systems Perspective
(A Contemporary View of Scientific Management)
Frederick Taylor-Scientific Management
Time and Motion Studies Goals--Organizations exist to attain collective
Standardization goals
Exception Principle Division of Labor for efficiency
Division of Labor Specialization for expertise
Span of Control Standardization for routine performance
Formalization for uniformity and coordination
Hierarchy for unity of command and
Henri Fayol-Functions of Administration coordination
Planning Span of Control for effective supervision
Organizing Exception Principle to free superiors from
Commanding routine
Coordinating Coordination for administrative effectiveness
Controlling Formal Organization is the official blueprint
of the structure that guarantees efficiency and
Luther Gulick--Functions of the effectiveness. The formal organization
Executive is the key to organizational
POSDCoRB effectiveness.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
II. Natural-Systems Perspective: An Organic Model

Human Relations (The Beginning) Contemporary Natural System (Human Resources

View)
Mary Parker Follett Survival--organizations are more than instruments for
Taylor antagonist and goal attainment; they are social groups that adapt and
human relations advocate survive.
Individuals are more important than the structure.
Hawthorne Studies Needs motivate performance more than role demands .
Illumination Studies--three studies Specialization can promote boredom and frustration.
Elton Mayo--more studies(1927-32) Formalization produces rigidity and rule fixation.
Hawthorne Effect Informal Norms not formal rules are critical to
performance.
Informal Organization Hierarchy is ineffective because it usually neglects
Norms talent.
Grapevine Span of Control is dysfunctional because it fosters close
Informal leaders and authoritarian supervision.
Cliques Informal Communication is more efficient and open than
formal communication.
Informal Norms Informal Organization--informal structures are more
No squealing important than formal ones just as informal leaders are
No rate busting more influential than formal ones. The informal
No chiseling organization is the key to effectiveness.
Be a regular guy
 II. Open-systems Perspective: An Integration
Social Science: Interdependence, Integration, and Contingencies

Max Weber Theory of Bureaucracy

Chester Barnard Functions of the Executive
Herbert Simon Administrative Behavior
Talcott Parsons Social Systems Theory

Interdependence is a fact of organizational life.

All organizations are open systems whose parts interact and depend on each other
and are dependent on their environments.

Integration is central to an open-systems perspective.

Integration of goals and needs Behavior is a function of structure and needs.

Integration of rational and natural elements
aspects.
Integration of tight and loose couplings
Integration of planned and unplanned activities
Integration of formal and informal.
Contingency Theory
Effectiveness is contingent upon matching
the situation with the appropriate technique.
All organization have both rational and natural
Organizations need both tight and loose couplings.
Politics pervades organizational life.
Organizations have two interactive faces:
Formal & Informal.
There is no one best way to organize, motivate,
decide, lead, or communicate-- it depends.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
 Historical Development of
Theory and Thought in Administration

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

 Key Properties of Open Systems
Inputs --people, materials, and resources from the outside
Transformation -- the process transforming inputs into something of value by
the system.
Outputs -- the byproduct of the transformation.
Feedback -- how the system communicates to its parts and the
environment.
Boundaries -- systems are differentiated from their environments.
Environment -- is anything outside the system.
Homeostatis --a steady state of equilibrium
Entropy -- the tendency for all systems for run down and die.
Equifinality --the same end can be achieved many ways.

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Open System with
Feedback Loops
Environment

Inputs Throughput Outputs

People [Transformation] Performance
Materials Products
Finances Services

Feedback
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Social Systems Model: Key Assumptions
Social systems are open systems.
Social systems consists of interdependent parts, which interact
with each other and the environment.
Social systems are goal oriented.
Social systems are peopled.
Social systems have structure.
Social systems are political.
Social systems have cultures.
Social systems have norms.
Social systems are conceptual and relative.
All formal organizations are social systems, but not all social systems
are organizations.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Key Elements of the School as a Social System
Schools are social systems with the following key parts:
Structure: roles are expectations of positions that are arranged in a hierarchy.

Individual: the individual is a key unit in any social system; regardless of position,
people bring with them individual needs, beliefs, and a cognitive
understandings of the job.

Culture: represents the unwritten feeling part of the organizations:

its shared values

Politics: informal power relations that develop spontaneously.

Core: the teaching-learning process is the technical core of schools.

Environment: everything outside the organization; source of inputs.

Outputs: the products of the organizations, e. g. educated students.

Feedback: communication that monitors behavior. W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Effectiveness: the congruence between expected and actual outcomes.

 Internal Elements of the
System
Environment

TransformationProcess

StructuralSystem
(BureaucraticExpectations)

ng

Te
ni

ac
ar

hi
Le

ng
CulturalSystem PoliticalSystem
Inputs (SharedOrientations) (PowerRelations) Outputs

ng
Le

hi
ar

ac
ni

Te
ng

IndividualSystem
(CognitionandMotivation)

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Social System Model for
Environment
Schools Inputs TransformationProcess Outputs
Environmental StructuralSystem
constraints Achievement
(BureaucraticExpectations)
Humanand Jobsatisfaction

ng

Te
capitalresources

ni

ac
Absenteeism

ar

hi
Le

g n
Missionand Cultural Political
boardpolicy System System Dropoutrate
(Shared (Power
Le

ng
Orientations) Relations) Overallquality

hi
ar

Materialsand

ac
ni
ng

Te
methods

IndividualSystem
(CognitionandMotivation)
Discrepancybetween
ActualandExpected
Performance
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
The Triadic Relations of Theory,
Practice, and Research
Theory,research,andpracticeareinadynamicrelationship.Eachsetof

relationships is reciprocal: theory guides practice, but practice reinforces,

refines,ordisconfirmstheory;theoryguidesresearch,butresearchcreates

and refines theory; and research guides practice, but practice directs

research.
T

R P W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Practical Imperatives
1. Seek and test good explanations in your administrative practice:
Be both reflective and guided by evidence.
2. Be prepared for both rational and irrational behavior in schools:
Both abound.
3. Cultivate informal relations to solve formal problems:
The informal organization is a source of ingenious ideas.
4. Use multiple perspectives to frame school challenges:
Framing the problem is often the key to its solution.
5. Engage informal leaders in problem solving:
Cooperation between the formal and the informal is a key to success.
6. Be politically astute as you represent the school and its students:
Politics is a fact of school life.
7. Encourage both stability and spontaneity as appropriate:
Both are essential to good schools.
8. Be responsive to the community: The school is an open system.
9. Cultivate expertise as the basis for solving problems:
Knowledge should be the basis of decision making.
10. Harness administration to the facilitation of sound teaching and learning:
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Teaching and learning is what schools are about.