Zhores Alferov

Semiconductor Revolution
in the 20th Century

St Petersburg Academic University

Nanotechnology Research and Education Centre RAS
 Introduction
Semiconductor research in 1930th
Transistor discovery
Discovery of lasermaser principle and
birth of quantum optoelectronics
Invention and development
of the silicon chips
Heterostructure research
God-made and Man-made crystals
Problems and future trends

2
 Polytechnical Institute

Ioffe seminar at the Polytechnical Institute. 1916

3
Yakov Frenkel

4
One of the last
Ioffe photo.
September 1960

5
 Laboratory demo model
of the first bipolar transistor

Schematic plot of the first

point-contact transistor

6
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956
"for their researches on semiconductors
and their discovery of the transistor effect"

William Bradford John Walter Houser

Shockley Bardeen Brattain
19101989 19081991 19021987 7
8
9
10
11
W. Shockley and A. Ioffe. Prague. 1960. 12
 The Nobel Prize in Physics 1964
"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics,

which has led to the construction of oscillators

and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle"

Charles Hard Nicolay Aleksandr

Townes Basov Prokhorov
b. 1915 19222001 19162002 13
13
14
14
15
15
 Lasers and LEDs on pn junctions
January 1962: observations of superlumenscences in GaAs p-n junctions
(Ioffe Institute, USSR).
Sept.-Dec. 1962: laser action in GaAs and GaAsP p-n junctions
(General Electric , IBM (USA); Lebedev Institute (USSR).

L ig h t in te n s ity
W a v e le n g th

+ n
E F n
p LD
p L D
G aAs E g h
n p
E F
C le a v e d m ir r o r

Condition of optical gain: EnF EpF > Eg

16
16
 The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000
"for basic work on information and communication technology"
for developing semiconductor for his part in the
heterostructures used in high-speed- and invention of the integrated
opto-electronics circuit

Zhores I. Herbert Jack S.

Alferov Kroemer Kilby
b. 1930 b. 1928 19232005 17
17
18
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First integrated circuit/notebook

20
Patent of the first
integrated circuit
by R. Noyce

21
 Factory sales of Electronics and IC
1000
S a le s in th e U n ite d S ta te s

100
( a ) F a c to r y s a le s
o f E le c tr o n ic s

10 (b ) In te g ra te d
c ir c u it s
D ig ita l M O S
1
D ig ita l
In v e n tio n B e g in n in g b ip o la r
o f tr a n s is to r o f IC
L in e a r
S.M. Sze,
0 .1
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 J. Appl. Phys.
Year Vol. 22 (1983)

(a) Factory sales of Electronics in the United States over the past 50 years
and projected to 1990.
(b) Integrated circuit Market in the United States. 22
22
 Changing composition of work force
in the United States
P e r io d I P e r io d II P e r io d III
50
A g r ic u ltu r e
In fo r m a tio n
In d u s tr y
40
P e r c e n ta g e

30

20
S e r v ic e

10 S.M. Sze,
J. Appl. Phys.
Vol. 22 (1983)
0
1860 1900 1950 1990
Year

23
23
 Penetration of technology into
the industrial output
S y s te m o r g a n iz a tio n
s o ftw a r e d e s ig n
E le c tr o m e c h a n ic a l
d e s ig n

E le c tr o n ic
c ir c u it L o g ic
d e s ig n d e s ig n

S.M. Sze,
J. Appl. Phys.
1860 1900 1950 1990 Vol. 22 (1983)
Year

Penetration of technology into the industrial output versus year for four
periods of change in the United States electronics industry.
24
24
 Moore's law I: device downsizing
F ir s t s ilic o n tr a n s is to r
T e x a s In s tru m e n ts
in t r o d u c e d t h e f ir s t
s ilic o n tr a n s is t o r
8 n 1954 S m a ll ta lk
10 nm T h e t r a n s is to r s in
I n t e l's P e n t iu m 4
p r o c e s s o r a r e ju s t
7 4 5 n m in s iz e
10 nm S iz e m a tte r s
T r a n s is to r s in th e
6 fir s t m ic r o p r o c e s s o r
V a c u u m tu b e 10 nm (th e In te l 4 0 0 4 )
T h e f ir s t a c tiv e m e a s u re d 1 0 m
e le c t r o n ic d e v ic e to 5
b e in v e n te d w a s 10 nm
th e v a c u u m tu b e
4
T h e fir s t In te g r a te d c ir c u it 10 nm
J a c k K ilb y d e v e lo p e d H o w lo w c a n y o u g o ?
t h e fir s t in te g r a te d 3 F u r th e r d o w n s iz in g
c ir c u it in 1 9 5 8 10 nm m a y n o t p ro v e to b e
e c o n o m ic a lly v ia b le
100 nm
10 nm
T ra d e -o ff
S m a lle r d e v ic e s
s u ffe r fr o m la r g e r
le a k a g e c u r r e n ts

1900 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

H. Iwai, H. Wang, Phys. World Vol. 18, 09 2005
25
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 Moore's law II: chip density
T h e ro a d a h e a d
F u r th e r in c r e a s e in 10
c h ip d e n s it y r e lie s o n 10
In te l Ita n iu m n e w t e c h n o lo g ie s
T h e w o r ld 's m o s t
p o w e r f u l c h ip c a n
p e rfo rm h u n d re d s o f
m illio n s o f o p e r a t io n s
per second 9
10

L a rg e r m e m o ry
M e m o r y c h ip s
8 c o n t a in m o r e
10
G o rd o n M o o re tr a n s is to r s th a n
C o - fo u n d e r o f In te l, p ro c e s s o rs
w h o id e n t if ie d
7
th e tre n d fo r 10
c h ip d e n s it y
4 0 y e a rs a g o

6 In te l P e n tiu m 4
10
B y 1 9 9 5 th e P e n tiu m
F ir s t m ic r o p r o c e s s o r c h ip c o n ta in e d
T h e In te l 4 0 0 4 4 2 m illio n t r a n s is t o r s
c o n ta in e d 2 3 0 0
tr a n s is t o r s 5
10 In te l P e n t iu m
T h e f ir s t P e n t iu m
p r o c e s s o r c o n ta in e d
4 5 .5 m illio n t r a n s is t o r s
10
1970 1980 1990 2000 2004 2010 2020
H. Iwai, H. Wang, Phys. World Vol. 18, 09 2005
26
26
Increase in the power density of VLSI chips
1000
C h ip m a x im u m p o w e r d e n s ity

Ita n iu m : 1 3 0 W

100
(W /c m 2 )

P e n tiu m 4 : 7 5 W
P e n tiu m III: 3 5 W
P e n tiu m P r o : 3 0 W P e n tiu m II: 3 5 W
10 H e a tin g p la t e
P e n tiu m : 1 4 W
(s u rp ra s s e d )

I4 8 6 : 2 W
I3 8 6 : 1 W
1
1 .5 1 0 .7 0 .5 0 .3 5 0 .2 5 0 .1 8 0 .1 3 0 .1 0 .0 7
F e a tu r e s iz e ( m )

B. Jalali et. all., OPN, June 2009 27

27
 Fundamental physical phenomena
in classical heterostructures
(a) Ec E le c tr o n s
E c One-side Injection
Fn Propozal 1948 (W. Shokley)
Fp Experiment 1965 (Zh. Alferov et al.)

E v H o le s

(b) E le c tr o n s Superinjection
Fn Ec Theory 1966 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Fp
Experiment 1968 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Ev
H o le s

(c)
Diffusion in built-in
E le c tr o n s quasielectric field
Theory 1956 (H. Kroemer)
Experiment 1967 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
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 Fundamental physical phenomena
in classical heterostructures
(d) Electron and optical confinement
Ec
Fn Propozal 1963 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Experiment 1968 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
Fp
Ev

(e) Superlattices and quantum wells

Ec
Theory 1962 (L.V. Keldysh)
First experiment 1970 (L. Esaki et al.)
Ev
Resonant tunnelling 1963
(L.V. Iogansen)
In Quantum Wells 1974 (L. Esaki et al.)

29
 Heterojunctions a new kind
of semiconductor materials:
Long journey from infinite interface recombination
to ideal heterojunction
2 .8 Lattice matched
A lP heterojunctions
E n e rg y g a p (e V ) [3 0 0 K ]

GeGaAs1959
2 .0 G a P (R. L. Anderson)
A lS b AlGaAs1967
In P (Zh. Alferov et al.,
G aAs J. M. Woodall &
1 .2
G aSb H. S. Rupprecht)
Quaternary HS
G e
0 .4 In A s (InGaAsP & AlGaAsSb)
Proposal1970
5 .4 0 5 .5 6 5 .7 2 5 .8 8 6 .0 4 6 .2 0 (Zh. Alferov et al.)
L a ttic e c o n s ta n t ( ) [3 0 0 K ] First experiment1972
(Antipas et al.)

30
 3 .0

2 .4

E n e rg y g a p (e V ) 1 .8

1 .2

0 .6

0
0 .6
5 .4 5 .6 5 .8 6 .0 6 .2 6 .4 6 .6
L a ttic e c o n s ta n t ( )
Energy gaps vs lattice constants for semiconductors IV elements,
IIIV and II(IV)VI compounds and magnetic materials in parentheses.
Lines connecting the semiconductors, red for IIIV, and blue for others,
indicate quantum heterostructures, that have been investigated.
Nitrides have not been yet included.
31
 Schematic representation of the DHS
injection laser in the first CW-operation
at room temperature

200 m A

120 m
M e ta l
S iO 2
p+ G aAs 3 m
p A l0 .2 5 G a 0 .7 5 A s 3 m
p G a A s 0 .5 m
p A l0 .2 5 G a 0 .7 5 A s 3 m
n G aAs
M e ta l 250 m
Copper

32
 Heterostructure solar cells

Space station Mir equipped with heterostructure solar cells

33
 Heterostructure microelectronics
Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor
E c Suggestion1948 (W.Shockley)
E c Theory1957 (H.Kroemer)
F
E v
Experiment1972 (Zh.Alferov et al.)
E v AlGaAs HBT

HEMT1980 (T.Mimura et al.)

EcE
E c
1 10 ns
F
E 0

P r o p a g a tio n d e la y
1 ns
E v
E v

NAlGaAs-n GaAs Heterojunction

100 ps

JJ
10 ps

100 nW 1 W 10 W 100 W 1 m W 10 m W
P o w e r d is s ip a tio n

Speed-power performances
34
 Heterostructure Tree A dvanced LA N

(by I. Hayashi, 1985) B id ir e c t io n a l

W id e B a n d V id e o N e tw o r k
O p t ic a l T r a n s it io n S u p e r H ig h S p e e d
W a v e le n g th D iv is io n C o m p u te r
M u lt ip le x it y
M o n o lith ic
O n e C h ip O E IC
R e p e a te r S w it c h O p tic a l
A ll O p tic a l L in k M u lti- C o n n e c tio n
W a v e le n g th P IN - F E T B e tw e e n
L S Is
P hased LD L D - D r iv e r M SI O p tic a l O n e C h ip
L a s e r D is k A rra y W ir in g C o m p u te r
L a s e r P r in te r SSI In s id e
LD I n t e g r a t io n
o f O p tic a l LSI LSI
a n d E le c tr o n ic
D e te c to r D e v ic e s
O p tic a l S e n s o r A rra y In te g r a tio n In te g r a tio n o f H EM T
H BT HS
o f O p tic a l B ifu n c tio n a l
D e v ic e s S o la r
H ig h APD D e v ic e s G aAs C e ll's
LD FET
Pow er P IN IC
E le c tr o n ic s In te g r a tio n
LED T e c h n o lo g y

D e v ic e
T e c h n o lo g y

S u b s tra te E p ita x i P ro c e s s M a te r ia l
C ry s ta l T h in F ilm T e c h n o lo g y C h a r a c te r iz a tio n
35
 Liquid Phase Epitaxy of
IIIV compounds
H H e a t e r c o ils
2

G aAs G aAs
s u b s tra te s o u rc e S o lu tio n
P u ll r o d

Q u a rtz re a c to r

InAsGaP thin layer in

InGaP/InGaAsP/InGaP/GaAs
(111 A) structure with
quantum well grown by LPE.
TEM image of the structure.
5 nm

36
 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
IIIV compounds
io n p u m p Riber 32P
e -g u n

s u b s tra te
u n it io n g a u g e

r e s id u a l g a s
a n a ly z e r s h u tte rs
R H EED
s c re e n

e ffu s io n
c e lls MESFET, HEMT

Schematic view of MBE machine

QCL, RTD, Esaki-Tsu SL
MBE high purity of materials,
in situ control, precision of
structure growth in layer
PD, LED, LD
thickness and composition
....
37
 MOCVD growth of IIIV compounds
Schematic view of MOCVD chamber

In le t
Q u a r tz s e a lin g S tr e a m lin e s
W a ffe r

Aixtron AIX2000 HT Epiquip VP50-RP

(up to 6 x 2 wafers) (up to 1 x 2 wafer)
Production oriented growth Flexible growth machine
machine for the fabrication for laboratory studies
of device structures

A l2O 3

Unique method of wafer rotation HEM T LED LD

leads to high uniformity of structure
in wafer and high reproducibility MOCVD high purity of materials,
from wafer to wafer large-scale device-oriented technology

38
Impact of dimensionality on
density of states

3D
P

E gap E n e rg y
Lz

P
2D

D e n s ity o f s ta te s
N

E 0 E 1
Lz

P
N
1D Lx

E 00 E 01
Lz
Lx
P

N
0D Ly

E 000 E 001

39
 Quantum cascade lasers
Band diagram Layer sequence

Emission spectrum at room Light- and Volt-current

temperature characteristics
1 12 80
O p tic a l p o w e r ( lo g ., a .u .)

P u ls e d 8K
ro o m te m p e ra tu re
0 .1 60
8 150K

P o w e r, m W
V o lta g e , V

0 .0 1 40

200K
4
0 .0 0 1 20
250K
0 0
8 .5 8 .6 8 .7 0 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5
W a v e le n g th , m C u rre n t, A 40
 Quantum dot as superatom

c o n d u c tio n
band e le c tr o n
le v e ls
p h o to n
phonon p h o to n

fo r b id d e n
gaps

v a le n c e kT h o le
le v e ls
band

Atom Semiconductor Quantum dot

41
Milestones of semiconductor lasers
10 5

4 .3 k A /c m 2
10 4
(1 9 6 8 ) Im p a c t o f D o u b le
H e te ro s tru c tu re s
10 3 Im p a c t o f
9 0 0 A /c m 2 Q u a n tu m W e lls
(1 9 7 0 ) 4 0 A /c m 2 Im p a c t o f
10 2
(1 9 8 8 ) Q u a n tu m
1 6 0 A /c m 2
(1 9 8 1 ) D o ts
1 9 A /c m 2
10 (2 0 0 0 )
Im p a c t o f S P S L Q W
6 A /c m 2
(2 0 0 2 )
0
1960 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 2005
Y e a rs

Evolution and revolutionary changes

Reduction of dimensionality results in improvements
42
 Magic leather
energy consumption
T o ta l th r o u g h o u t th e w o r ld
R e s e rv e s
E n e r g y C a r r ie r (k n o w n a n d C o n s u m p tio n P e r io d o f
e x tr a c tiv e ) ra te exhaust
(G W a tt y e a r) (G W a tt) (y e a rs )
O il 200 000 4 600 4050

G as 150 000 2 200 6070

Coal 1 000 000 3 000 300400

N u c le a r P o w e r 90 000 750* 120

(th e rm a l re a c to rs )
T o ta l 1 440 000 11 0 0 0 130

N u c le a r P o w e r 15 000 000 11 0 0 0 * 1 500

(fa s t re a c to rs )
* C a lc u la te d v a lu e
43
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Multijunction solar cells provide conversion
of the solar spectrum with higher efficiency.
Achievable efficiency of multijunction cells is > 50%

G e

Si
G a In P G aAs
1600 1600
1400 1400
1200 1200
1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
0 0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
W a v e le n g th ( n m ) W a v e le n g th ( n m )

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The experimental PV installation with output power of 1 kW based on
concentrator III-V solar cells and Fresnel lens panels arranged on the sun-
tracker (development of the Ioffe Institute). The efficiency >30% can be
ensured by such a type of installations if they are equipped by tandem solar
cells with efficiency >35%.
45 45
 White light-emitting diodes:
efficiency, controllability, reliability, life time
Today: Outlook:
InGaN-QW/GaN/sapphire Monolithic microcavity LED with
light-emitting chip + YAG Ce phosphor InGN/GN MQW active region
W h ite W h ite
P hosphor
YAG C e

S a p p h ir e S a p p h ir e

B u ffe r B u ffe r

n+G aN n+G aN

In G a N -Q W T i/A g /A u

p+G aN In G a N -Q W
p+G aN
B ra g g re s o n a to r
N i/ A g / A u T i/A g /A u G a N /A lG a N N i/A g /A u

+ simple design + monolithic nature

phosphor loss + absence of additional loss 46
46
 Nanostructures for high power
semiconductor lasers
S o lid -s ta te la s e r s p u m p in g

A tm o s p h e r ic a n d
F ib r e
fib r e o p tic a l
la s e r s
c o m m u n ic a tio n

M e d ic a l
N a v ig a tio n
a p p a ra tu s 5 nm

Band gap, eV
E n e rg y tra n s p o rt
A tm o s p h e r ic
in th e a tm o s p h e r e
lid a r s
a n d fib r e

Laser efficiency > 75% W e ld in g a n d c u ttin g Laser array

Laser power > 10 W output power > 100 W
Matrix output power > 5 kW
47
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Global nanotechnology market forecast:
More than 1 trillion USD annually in the nearest 810 years

T ra n s p o rt
E c o lo g y 7 0 b illio n
1 0 0 b illio n N a n o m a te r ia ls
A c c e le r a n ts 3 5 0 b illio n
1 0 0 b illio n

P h a r m a c e u tic s
1 8 0 b illio n
N a n o e le c tr o n ic s
3 5 0 b illio n

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 Summary
1. Heterostructures a new kind of semiconductor materials:
expensive, complicated chemically & technologically but most efficient
2. Modern optoelectronics is based on heterostructure applications
DHS laser key device of the modern optoelectronics
HS PD the most efficient & high speed photo diode
OEIC only solve problem of high information density of optical
communication system
3. Future high speed microelectronics will mostly use
heterostructures
4. High temperature, high speed power electronics
a new broad field of heterostructure applications
5. Heterostructures in solar energy conversion:
the most expensive photocells and the cheapest solar electricity producer

6. In the 21st century heterostructures in electronics will reserve

only 1% for homojunctions
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