Aerospace Design and

Systems Engineering Elements I

AE1222-II
By:
R. Vos FPP A/C Preliminary Sizing
J.A. Melkert FPP (T/W-W/S diagram)
B.T.C. Zandbergen SSE

1
Conceptual Aircraft Design Process in Elements I
Requirements 1

Fuselage design
5
Class I weight
estimation
2 Wing design 6
Initial layout
Wing loading,
Propulsion
power loading 6
3 You need:
= geometric
Tail design 7
Configuration compass, ruler,
pencil (+eraser!)
selection
4 = calculator
Gear design 7

= ideas

2
Aircraft preliminary sizing (design for performance)

From top level requirements to the preliminary sizing of the aircraft. Goals and
methods

Generation of wing and thrust loading diagrams: preliminary

sizing for the following requirements:
minimum speed
take off distance
landing distance
climb (rate and gradient)
maneuvering (turn rate/radius)
maximum speed
maximum altitude (service ceiling)

3
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

The sizing-for-performance process, is based on the generation of the so

called T/W W/S or W/P W/S diagrams, where:
W/S = wing loading
T/W = thrust loading (for jet aircraft)
W/P = power loading (for propeller aircraft)
W=MTOW

T/W W/P

W/S W/S

The goal is to identify those areas in the diagrams, where

combinations of wing loading and thrust loading exist that allow
meeting the given performance requirements
6
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Among all the T/W (W/P) and W/S combinations that allow to meet
the mission performance requirements, the designer should choose
the design point that yield the aircraft with the lowest cost and
weight. That is the point with:
1. the highest possible wing loading, AND
2. the lowest possible thrust-to-weight ratio (or highest possible
power loading)

T/W W/P

W/S W/S

When WTO is determined*, also T (and P) and S can be computed

7
Aircraft preliminary sizing (design for performance)

On the basis of the range and endurance requirements, the

fuel fractions method provides a preliminary estimate of the
aircraft gross take off weight (WTO= WE+WPl+Wf).

The sizing approach to meet performance objectives will yield

the following:
1. The aircraft wing area, S
2. The take-off thrust, TTO for jet AC; or the take-off power,
PTO for propeller AC

This approach will require the designer to make assumptions

on:
. Maximum lift coefficient CLmax (in clean configuration,
as well as during take-off and landing)
. Drag polars

8
Aerodynamic Performance
Assumptions

9
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Typical values for CLmax can be used in this stage of the design
(see some reference data in the table next slide)

Remember that increasing the value for CLmax leads to more

complex high lift devices (HLD), which:
1. Weigh more
2. Cost more
3. Are more sensitive to failure
4. Require more maintenance

10
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

CLmax clean CLmax take-off CLmax land

aircraft type min max min max min max
homebuilts 1.2 1.8 1.2 1.8 1.2 2.0
single engine piston props 1.3 1.9 1.3 1.9 1.6 2.3
twin engine props 1.2 1.8 1.4 2.0 1.6 2.5
agricultural 1.3 1.9 1.3 1.9 1.3 1.9
business jets 1.4 1.8 1.6 2.2 1.6 2.6
regional turboprops 1.5 1.9 1.7 2.1 1.9 3.3
transport jets 1.2 1.8 1.6 2.2 1.8 2.8
military trainers 1.2 1.8 1.4 2.0 1.6 2.2
fighters 1.2 1.8 1.4 2.0 1.6 2.6
military patrol, bombers
and transport 1.2 1.8 1.6 2.2 1.8 3.0
flying boats, amphibians
and float planes 1.2 1.8 1.6 2.2 1.8 3.4
supersonic aircraft 1.2 1.8 1.6 2.0 1.8 2.2
11
Drag polar estimation at low speed
In order to size the aircraft for cruise, climbing and maneuvering
requirements, it is necessary to have a rough estimation* of the aircraft
drag polar: we need to quantify the amount of drag acting on the
aircraft, as function of the lift required at given flight conditions (e.g.,
clean configuration, flaps and/or landing gear down)

The following parabolic shape is assumed for the drag polar:

CL2
CD CD0 Where:
Ae
CD0 = zero lift drag coefficient Depend on flap settings
e = Oswald span efficiency factor and gear deployment
A = aircraft aspect ratio (b2/S)
CL, CD = lift and drag coefficients, respectively

12
Drag polar estimation at low speed

The extension of landing gears and the deployment of high lift

devices at take off and landing increase the Oswald factor e
and/or increase CDo.
The following corrective values can be used for a preliminary
definition of the drag polar at take off and landing.
CD0 e

Clean configuration 0 0

Take-off flaps 0.010 - 0.020 0.05

Landing flaps 0.055 - 0.075 0.10

Undercarriage* 0.015 - 0.025 0

HLDs perturb the lift distribution

on the wing and increase
parasite drag
Landing gear down
increases parasite
drag
13
Drag polar estimation at low speed: example

Configuration Propeller Jet

CD0 e CLmax CD0 e CLmax
Clean* 0.0280 0.78 1.5 0.0145 0.8 0.8
5
Take-off, gear up N/A N/A N/A 0.0270 0.9 1.9
0
Take-off, gear 0.0380 0.83 2.0 0.0420 0.9 1.9
down 0
Landing, gear 0.0730 0.88 2.4 0.0750 0.9 2.4
down 5

*This propeller aircraft has a fixed gear 15

Drag polar estimation at low speed: example

Below are the assumed drag polars for both aircraft

clean
Drag Coefficient, CD (~)
take-off, gear up
clean
Drag Coefficient, CD (~)
take-off, gear
take-off, gear down down

landing, gear down

Lift Coefficient, CL (~)

Lift Coefficient, CL (~)

Drag polar truncated at CLmax!

16
Sizing for stall speed

17
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

For some aircraft, the mission requires a maximum value of

the stall speed Vs, which should not be exceeded.

CS23 certified single engine aircraft, for example, may have a

stall speed not higher that 61 kts at WTO.

Hence, given
1 2 W 2 1
L W CL V S VS . .
2 S CLmax
For a given value of Vs and CLmax (in flaps-up or flaps-down as is
chosen by the designer) the following expression for W/S is
obtained:
W 1 In this case, the stall speed
. . VS2 .CLmax
S 2 constrains the maximum allowed
wing loading
18
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Example: single engine driven propeller aircraft

- According to CS 23.49, VS must not be higher than 61 kts (113 km/h)

- Assuming the use of flap design with an average complexity, e.g., C Lmax
= 1.8 at landing.
- Assuming = 1.225 kg/m3 (sea level ISA value*)

W 1
. . VS2 .CLmax W/S < 1086 N/m2
S 2

Note that W/S is no function of W/P**

19
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

W/P versus W/S diagram

for a single engine propeller aircraft

0.4

0.35

0.3

W/P0.25
(N/W)
0.2 W/S < 1086 N/m2 stall landing conf.

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500
W/S (N/m^2)
W/S is too high here
Maximum stall speed
requirement not fulfilled! 20
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Example: business jet aircraft

From marketing requirements the following requirements are

derived:
VS in landing configuration must not be higher than 85 kts
VS in clean configuration must not be higher than 100 kts

Assumed a flap design with an average complexity:

Clean condition: CLmax = 1.8 Landing condition: CLmax = 2.6

We obtain: (W/S)clean < 2917 N/m2

(W/S)landing < 3044 N/m2

Stall speed in clean configuration is limiting for the design

21
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

0.40

0.35

0.30
W/S < 2917 N/m2
0.25
stall clean conf.
T/W 0.20
stall landing conf.
0.15 W/S < 3044 N/m2

0.10

0.05

0.00
2800 3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000

W/S (N/m^2)
W/S is too high here Maximum stall
speed in clean configuration requirement
not fulfilled! 22
Sizing for take off

23
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Take off requirements are basically expressed in terms of take

of distance STO. In the sizing process for take-off the following
influencing factors must be accounted:
1. WTO
2. Take-off speed
3. (T/W)TO or (W/P)TO
4. Aerodynamic drag
5. Ground friction
6. Pilot technique
7. (Airworthiness)
requirements

35 or 50
ft
Ground roll Air distance
Take-off distance, sTO

24
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
However, in this stage of the design we cannot perform any
detailed calculation yet, but we can rely on statistics.
The following 4 parameters, which are actually the most
influencing for the take off length, can be put together in the
so called Take-off parameter (TOP):
- W/S
- W/P or T/W
- CLmax
- Density ratio, = / 0

W W 1 1
TOPjet . . .
S TO T TO CLTO

W W 1 1
TOPprop . . .
S TO P TO CL TO

27
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Indeed different types of aircraft (for certification class, number

and type of engines) have different values of TOP.
Statistical relationships between the take off field length
and the TOP exist.
Some are available in literature (e.g. Roskam and Raymer), but
you can also derive yours, based on data from reference
aircraft.

Having these relationships at hand, we can evaluate the TOP

value required to fulfill a certain take off length requirement
(see plot next slide from Raymer).

Once the required TOP value is known, combinations of wing

and thrust loading can be found that fulfill the initial take off
length requirement (for certain values of the take off lift
coefficients and density ratio).
28
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
Raymer method

VTO 1.1Vs
Single jet CLmax,TO
CLTO
1.12

Single or
double
propeller

PTO=BHP

29
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Effect of take-off altitude:

3/ 4
Power:

P PTO
0

3/ 4

Thrust: T TTO
0
g0
1
h R
ISA: 1
0 T0

Valid for troposphere

Source: wikipedia

30
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Step by step procedure:

1. Use the take off length (in ft) from requirements to enter
the Raymers plot (from left)

2. Intersect the curve corresponding to your aircraft

category and find the corresponding TOP value (be
careful with units).

3. Calculate the density ratio for the type of airport where

you intend to operate ( = 1 at sea level)

4. Assume various values for CLmax at take off* within a

range of values from literature (see slide 10). This will
allow you to decide later during the design, which high lift
devices system to use. Use to CLTO= CLmax/1.21.
5.
31
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
5. In case of business jet design, given:

W W 1 1
TOPjet . . . k
S TO T TO CLTO

Where k is the maximum allowable TOP value to meet the

take off length requirement (TOP < k), as found using
Raymers plot.
Calling W/S = x and T/W = y, we can write the following
expression of T/W as a function of W/S:
x 1 1 x 1 1
. . k y . .
y CLTO k CLTO
6. Repeat point 5 for all the CLmax-TO values assumed at point 4
(e.g. 1.6, 1.8, 2.0 and 2.2), and generate the plot next slide
7. Correct take-off thrust for take-off altitude

32
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

0.40

0.35

0.30
CLmaxTO = 1.6
0.25 CLmaxTO = 1.8
CLmaxTO = 2.0
T/W 0.20
CLmaxTO = 2.2
0.15 stall clean conf.
stall landing conf.
0.10

0.05

0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
W/S (N/m^2)
The take off requirement is not satisfied for any of
the T/W and W/S combinations in this plot area (TOP
too large) 33
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

0.40

0.35

0.30
CLmaxTO = 1.6
0.25 CLmaxTO = 1.8
CLmaxTO = 2.0
T/W 0.20
CLmaxTO = 2.2
0.15 stall clean conf.
stall landing conf.
0.10

0.05

0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

W/S (N/m^2)
The take off AND stall speed requirements are
satisfied only by the T/W and W/S combinations
in this plot area
34
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
W/P versus W/S diagram
for a single engine propeller aircraft

0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
W/P (N/W) Clmax TO = 1.3
0.20 Clmax TO = 1.6
Clmax TO = 1.9
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
-100 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
W/S (N/m^2)

The take off requirement is not satisfied for any of

the W/P and W/S combinations in this plot area (TOP
too large)
36
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
W/P versus W/S diagram
for a single engine propeller aircraft

0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25 Clmax TO = 1.3
W/P (N/W)
Clmax TO = 1.6
0.20
Clmax TO = 1.9
0.15 stall landing conf.
0.10
0.05
0.00
-100 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
W/S (N/m^2)

The take off AND stall speed requirements are

satisfied only by the W/P and W/S combinations
in this plot area
37
Sizing for landing

42
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
In order to size the aircraft for landing requirements, the
following influencing factors should be accounted:

1. WL (aircraft weight at landing)

2. Approach speed, VA
3. Deceleration method used (brakes, speed brakes, thrust
reversers)
4. Flying qualities of the airplane (high wing, low wing)
5. Pilot technique
6. (Airworthiness) requirements
7. Meteorological conditions (wind and wet runway)
The amount and type of parameters is such that, similarly to
the take off case, it is extremely difficult to make accurate
estimations of the landing field. A statistical approach is
the common way to go.
43
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

The landing field length includes one air and one ground
segment:
1.The air segment is the distance from obstacle height (50 ft
for CS23, CS25 and military aircraft) till touch down.
2.The ground roll segment is the distance travelled from
touchdown till complete stop.
50 ft

Air distance Ground roll

Landing distance, sL

45
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
Different ways to dissipate kinetic energy:

Wheel brakes
A340-600
Rejected take-off

Aerodynamic brakes

46
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
Different ways to dissipate kinetic energy:

Braking parachute: another form of aerodynamic brakes

Chute door

47
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
Different ways to dissipate kinetic energy:

Reverse thrust
buckets and
vanes

Reverse pitch
propeller

48
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

In order to dissipate the kinetic energy associated to VA2

different approaches can be thought of:
1.Use extremely powerful braking systems, whatever the
approach speed
2.Lower the approach speed

It should be considered that passengers, crew and

equipment can only withstand a certain
deceleration, hence it is important to maintain the
approach speed below acceptable limits.

Since VA is actually limited by regulations by the stall speed

in landing configuration* (hence with deployed flaps), a
relation can be defined between stall speed at landing and
The impact
landing fieldoflength.
the wing loading on the landing field length
becomes then apparent. Lowering the wing loading is a
way to lower the stall speed, hence the approach speed!
51
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Purely based on statistics the following relationship has been

found between landing distance and the stall speed in
landing configuration for CS/JAR/FAR 23 aircraft:

sL 0.5915* Vs2land

Where the statistical coefficient above accounts

for the relation between stall speed and approach
speed

52
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Assume equilibrium between lift and weight at the landing

speed to be able to determine VSland

1
WL CLmax . . .VS2land .S
2
And:

WL f * WTO
Then:
sland
CLmax . .
W 0.5915
S
TO 2.f

53
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
aircraft type WL/WTO

minimum average maximum

homebuilts 0.96 1.00 1.00
single engine piston props 0.95 0.997 1.00
twin engine props 0.88 0.99 1.00
agricultural 0.70 0.94 1.00
business jets 0.69 0.88 0.96
regional turboprops 0.92 0.98 1.00
transport jets 0.65 0.84 1.00
military trainers 0.87 0.99 1.10
Fighters (jets) 0.78 - 1.00
(turboprops) 0.57 - 1.00
military patrol, bombers and transport
(jets) 0.68 0.76 0.83
(tbps) 0.77 0.84 1.00
flying boats, amphibians and float planes
(land) 0.79 - 0.95

(sea) 0.98 - 1.00

54
supersonic aircraft 0.63 0.75 0.88
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Example: single engine propeller driven aircraft

sland = 550 m

sland
Vsland = 30.5 m/s
0.5915

Do not forget that, even if the landing distance given as

requirement is so long that a very high stall speed would
be allowed, airworthiness regulations stipulate for CS23
aircraft stall speed values not higher than 61 kts = 31.4
m/s
55
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Now choose a range of CLmax and see the effect on (W/S)TO

Assume WL/WTO = 0.95 => f = 0.95

Assume CLmax = 1.6 2.2

Solve:
sland
CLmax . .
W 0.5915
S
TO 2.f

56
 T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
W/P versus W/S diagram
for a single engine propeller aircraft

0.4

0.35

0.3
Landing field length
0.25
W/P (N/W) constraint met on
CLmax land =1.6
this (left) side of CLmax
0.2 CLmax land =1.9
the plot
CLmax land =2.2
0.15

0.1

0.05

0
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
W/S (N/m^2)

Note how the maximum allowable W/S value is strongly affected by the choice of high lift devices
57
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

W/P versus W/S diagram

for a single engine propeller aircraft

0.40
0.35
0.30 Clmax TO = 1.3
Clmax TO = 1.6
0.25
W/P (N/W) Clmax TO = 1.9
0.20 stall landing conf.
CLmax land =1.6
0.15
CLmax land =1.9
0.10 CLmax land =2.2
0.05
0.00
-100 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
W/S (N/m^2)

More effective HL devices allow meeting the take off,

landing and stall constraints for higher wing and power
loading values 58
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25
CLmax land =1.6
T/W 0.20 CLmax land =2.0
CLmax land =2.4
0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000
W/S (N/m^2)

See the effect of the HLDs choice on the maximum allowed

W/S value to meet the landing field length requirement.
62
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

0.40
For CLmax at landing = 2.0
0.35 and CLmax at take off =1.6, CLmaxTO = 1.6
0.30 all the combination of W/S CLmaxTO = 1.8
and T/W in this area satisfy CLmaxTO = 2.0
0.25
the take off, landing and CLmaxTO = 2.2
T/W 0.20 stall reqs stall clean conf.
stall landing conf.
0.15
CLmax land =1.6
0.10 CLmax land =2.0
CLmax land =2.4
0.05

0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
W/S (N/m^2)

Note that for CLmax=2.4, the stall speed in clean configuration is the limiting factor for
W/S.
For CLmax=1.6 and 2.0, the landing field length requirement becomes the limiting
63
factor for W/S
Sizing for cruise performance
- Cruise speed

64
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Maximum speed for propeller aircraft:

Pa =Pr

1 1
p .Pbr CD V3
C V 3

2 D0
2 W 1

W (W / S) (W / S) S Ae 1 V
2
PTO =Pbr
1
1

3/ 4
D0 2 C V 3

W W 1
p S
PTO
0 (W / S) 1
Ae V
2
Effect of altitude
65
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Example requirement:
V = 70 m/s
@ H= 2000m (ISA)
@ 90% power setting
@ 80% of maximum take-off weight

3/ 4 g0
1
h R
Effect of altitude: P PTO ISA: 1
0 0 T0

1
1

3/ 4
C V3

W 0.9 D0
2 W 1
p 0.8
PTO 0.8
0 (0.8W / S) S 1
Ae V

2

66
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

W/P versus W/S diagram

for a single engine propeller aircraft

0,000

0,000 V at A = 6

0,000 V at A = 9

W/P0,000
(N/W) V at A = 12
0,000

0,000

0,000

0,000

0,000
100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
W/S (N/m^2)

67
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

W/P versus W/S diagram

for a single engine propeller aircraft

0.40
Clmax TO = 1.3
0.35
Clmax TO = 1.6
0.30
Clmax TO = 1.9
0.25
W/P (N/W) stall landing conf.
0.20 CLmax land =1.6
0.15 CLmax land =1.9
0.10 CLmax land =2.2

0.05 V at A = 6

0.00 V at A = 9
-100 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 V at A = 12
W/S (N/m^2)

Example feasible design space

68
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Maximum speed for jet aircraft:

T=D=CD 1
2
V 2 S

1 1
CD V2 CD0 V2
T 2 2 W 1

W (W / S) (W / S) S Ae 1 V2
2
1
TTO 0
3/ 4
D0 2 C V 2

W 1

W (W / S) S 1
Ae V2
2

69
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Example requirement:
V = 200 m/s
@ H= 10000m (ISA)
@ 90% thrust setting
@ 80% of maximum take-off weight

3/ 4 g0
1
h R
Effect of altitude: T TTO ISA: 1
0 0 T0
1
TTO 0.8 0
3/ 4
C V2

D0
2 W 1
0.8
W 0.9 (0.8W / S)
S
1
Ae V
2

70
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25
V at A = 9
T/W0.20 V at A = 12
V at A = 15
0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

W/S (N/m^2)

71
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

0.40

0.35 CLmaxTO = 1.6

CLmaxTO = 1.8
0.30
CLmaxTO = 2.0
0.25 CLmaxTO = 2.2
stall clean conf.
T/W 0.20 stall landing
conf.
0.15 CLmax land
=1.6
0.10 CLmax land
=2.0
0.05
CLmax land
0.00 =2.4
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 V at A = 9
V at A = 12
W/S (N/m^2)

Example feasible design space

72
Sizing for climb rate performance

73
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Climb requirements and available power and thrust

L V L : lift
d

c= Vsin
pe e
W : weight
airs
T D : drag
T : thrust (assumed
Climb angle
aligned with the flight
Horizon path vector)
D Wcos

W

T-D-Wsin = 0 sin = (T-D)/W

c = Vsin c = V(T-D)/W = (Pa-Pr)/W
G = c/V G = (T-D)/W

74
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Pa Pr
Given that: c -
W W

Pa p .Pbr
For propeller driven aircraft we know:

1
And: Pr D.V CD . . .V .S
3

2
Assuming relatively small climb angles, the followings apply:

1 W2 1
L W CL . . .V2 .S or: V . .
2 S CL
75
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Then:
1 3 W
. 2
Pr CD 2 V S CD . V CD W 2 1
. 3/S2
W 1 2 CL CL S CL CL
CL V S .
2 CD

And:

W
p .Pbr . 2
c 3/S2
W CL
.
CD

76
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

For maximizing the rate of climb we have to maximize:

CL3/ 2
CD
In that case: CL 3CD0 Ae and CD 4CD0

From which we find:

CL3/ 2 (Ae)3/ 4
1.345* 1/ 4
CD max C D0

77
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Example single engine driven propeller aircraft:

c = 5 m/s at sea level

e = 0.70
CDo = 0.0335
p = 0.80
Power is take-off power => Pbr = PTO
A is still to be determined

78
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

We make use of the previously derived expression:

W
p .Pbr . 2
c 3/S2
W CL
.
CD

Call x = W/S and y = W/P:

2
x.
p
c
y CL3/ 2
CD

79
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

We then find: p
y
2
x.

c
CL3/ 2
CD
CL3/ 2
Then, by setting the value of for optimal climb rate, we
obtain: CD
p
y
2
x.

c
(Ae)3/ 4
1.345*
C1/
D0
4

80
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
W/P versus W/S diagram
for a single engine propeller aircraft

0.40

0.35

0.30
Here the climb
0.25
rate requirement
W/P (N/W) c at A = 6
0.20
is NOT satisfied c at A = 9
c at A = 12
0.15 A
0.10

0.05

0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

W/S (N/m^2)
Note the positive effect on required power (i.e. P becomes
lower) caused by increasing aspect ratio values
81
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

W/P versus W/S diagram

for a single engine propeller aircraft
Clmax TO = 1.3
0.40
Clmax TO = 1.6
0.35 Clmax TO = 1.9
stall landing
0.30 conf.
CLmax land
0.25
W/P (N/W) =1.6
0.20 CLmax land
=1.9
0.15 CLmax land
0.10 =2.2
c at A = 6
0.05 c at A = 9
c at A = 12
0.00 V at A = 6
-100 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
V at A = 9
W/S (N/m^2) V at A = 12

82
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Now the same analysis for jet driven aircraft.

Again, from performance theory:

Pa Pr
c
W W
1
where Pa T . V and Pr D.V CD . . .V3 .S
2
Assume again relatively small climb angles:

1 W2 1
L W CL . . .V2 .S or: V . .
2 S CL

83
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Then:

TV DV TV CDV T CD W2 1
c .
W W CL W CL S CL

Again, for maximizing the rate of climb, we have to maximize:

CL3/ 2
CD

In that case: CL 3CD0 Ae and CD 4CD0

84
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Example business jet aircraft:

c = 20 m/s at sea level

e = 0.85
CDo = 0.0145
A is still to be determined

85
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
Making use of the previously derived expression:

T CD W2 1
c .
W CL S CL

Call x = W/S and y = T/W:

CD 2 1 c CD
c y . x. y
CL CL 2 1 CL
x.
CL

86
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

0.40
A
0.35

0.30

0.25 Here the climb c at A = 9

T/W 0.20
rate requirement c at A = 12
c at A = 15
0.15 is NOT satisfied
0.10

0.05

0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Note, the negative effect W/Shigh

(N/m^2)aspect ratio on the required
thrust ratio to meet a given climb rate. The effect of the aspect
ratio (negative in this example) depends on the given value of
climb rate*
87
 T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

The F104 Starfighter features the typical characteristics of a supersonic

interceptor aircraft:
1. small wing surface, hence high wing loading to achieve high climb
rate
2. low aspect ratio to achieve high climb rates and to keep supersonic
drag low
88
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

CLmaxTO = 1.6
0.40
CLmaxTO = 1.8
0.35 CLmaxTO = 2.0
CLmaxTO = 2.2
0.30
stall clean conf.
0.25 stall landing
conf.
T/W 0.20
CLmax land =1.6
0.15 CLmax land =2.0
CLmax land =2.4
0.10 V at A = 9
0.05 V at A = 12
V at A = 15
0.00 c at A = 9
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
c at A = 12
W/S (N/m^2) c at A = 15

89
Sizing for climb gradient performance

90
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
Climb gradient requirements for propeller aircraft.

From performance theory:

c Pa Pr p .Pbr D. V p .Pbr CD

V W. V W. V W. V W. V CL
with:

p .Pbr Pbr 1
p . .
W. V W W2 1
S CL

91
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

We then find:

c Pbr 1 CD
p . .
V W W 2 1 CL
S CL

Optimizing this expression leads to a value for CL which is

very close to the maximum lift coefficient. This would
result in a dangerous flight condition, hence a safety
margin on the lift coefficient is used to construct the
curves for W/P versus W/S. For example, one could use .

92
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Example single engine driven propeller aircraft:

c/V = 0.083 at sea level (from CS/JAR/FAR 23.65 about climb

with all engines operating)
e = 0.70
CDo = 0.0335
p = 0.80
Power is take-off power => Pbr = PTO
A is still to be determined
CLmax = 1.8 => CL = 1.6

93
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
Making use of the previously derived expression:

c Pbr 1 CD
p . .
V W W 2 1 CL
S CL

And call x = W/S and y = W/P we obtain:

c p 1 CD p
. y
V y 2 1 CL c CD 2 1
x x
CL V CL CL

94
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
W/P versus W/S diagram
for a single engine propeller aircraft

0.40
0.35
0.30
A
W/P 0.25
(N/W) c/V at A = 6
0.20
c/V at A = 9
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
W/S (N/m^2)

Note again, the positive effect of a high aspect ratio on

lowering the required power (for a given wing loading
value)
95
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

W/P versus W/S diagram

for a single engine propeller aircraft
Clmax TO = 1.3
0.40 Clmax TO = 1.6
0.35 Clmax TO = 1.9
stall landing
0.30 conf.
CLmax land
0.25
W/P (N/W) =1.6
0.20 CLmax land
=1.9
0.15 CLmax land
=2.2
0.10 c at A = 6
0.05 c at A = 9
c at A = 12
0.00 c/V at A = 6
-100 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 c/V at A = 9
W/S (N/m^2) c/V at A = 12

96
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Climb gradient requirements for jet engine airplanes:

c Pa Pr T . V D. V T CD

V W. V W. V W. V W CL
It is evident that the optimum climb is obtained for maximum
L/D

Finding an expression for T/W results in:

T c CD

W V CL

97
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

We can observe that, for jet aircraft, there is no dependency

on W/S!

Then the climb gradient requirements will result in straight

horizontal lines in the T/W W/S diagram

Since maximum L/D is found for:

CD 2.CD0 and CL CD0 . . A.e

T c CD0
Then, we obtain: 2
W V Ae

98
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Example business jet aircraft:

c/V = 0.20 at sea level in take off conditions

e = 0.85
CDo = 0.0145
A is still a variable

T c CD0
2
W V Ae

99
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

0.40

0.35

0.30
A
0.25
c/V at A =9
T/W0.20 c/V at A = 12
c/V at A = 15
0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
W/S (N/m^2)
Note in this case, the positive* effect of a high aspect
ratio on lowering the required power to reach a certain
climb gradient
100
 T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

CLmaxTO = 1.6
0.40 CLmaxTO = 1.8
CLmaxTO = 2.0
0.35 CLmaxTO = 2.2
stall clean conf.
0.30
stall landing conf.
CLmax land =1.6
0.25
CLmax land =2.0
T/W 0.20 CLmax land =2.4
V at A = 9
0.15 V at A = 12
V at A = 15
0.10 c at A = 9
c at A = 12
0.05 c at A = 15
c/V at A =9
0.00 c/V at A = 12
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 c/V at A = 15

Only in the green area (A= 9, CLmax_landing = 2.0), the land and climb rate requirements
W/S (N/m^2)
are all satisfied (in this case, stall, take off and climb gradient requirements are not
active constraints)
101
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Note, that in view of sizing the aircraft for the

minimum climb gradients indicated by
regulations, it is opportune to consider at least the
required gradients of 3.0, 2.7 and 2.4% (for 4, 3 and 2
engine aircraft, respectively) indicated for the second
take-off segment*, with one engine inoperative (OEI)

In this case the previous equation for climb gradient

should be rewritten as follows:

T N c CD0 Where N is the number

2 of aircraft engines**
W N 1 V Ae
Besides, CD0 should be corrected for the OEI case***

102
Determining the Design Point

108
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

As already discussed, the goal is to identify the

combination of maximum wing loading and minimum
thrust loading (minimum power loading for propeller
aircraft) that allow meeting all the given performance
requirements, for certain assumptions on A and CLmax

T/W W/P

W/S W/S

109
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
W/P versus W/S diagram
for a single engine propeller aircraft
Clmax TO = 1.3
0.40 Clmax TO = 1.6
0.35 Clmax TO = 1.9
stall landing
0.30 conf.
CLmax land
0.25
W/P (N/W) =1.6
0.20 CLmax land
=1.9
0.15 CLmax land
=2.2
0.10 c at A = 6
0.05 c at A = 9
c at A = 12
0.00 c/V at A = 6
-100 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 c/V at A = 9
W/S (N/m^2)
= chosen design point c/V at A = 12

110
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams
Always
perform a
sanity W/P versus W/S diagram
for a single engine propeller aircraft Clmax TO = 1.3
check Clmax TO = 1.6
0.40 Clmax TO = 1.9
stall landing conf.
0.35 CLmax land =1.6
0.30 CLmax land =1.9
CLmax land =2.2
0.25
W/P (N/W) c at A = 6
0.20 c at A = 9
c at A = 12
0.15
c/V at A = 6
0.10 c/V at A = 9
0.05 c/V at A = 12
V at A = 6
0.00 V at A = 9
100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500
W/S (N/m^2) V at A = 12
reference aircraft

111
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet

CLmaxTO = 1.6
0.40 CLmaxTO = 1.8
CLmaxTO = 2.0
0.35 CLmaxTO = 2.2
CLmax_land= 1.6, A =9
stall clean conf.
0.30
stall landing conf.
CLmax_land= 2.0, A =9 CLmax land =1.6
0.25
CLmax land =2.0
T/W 0.20 CLmax land =2.4
V at A = 9
0.15 V at A = 12
V at A = 15
0.10 c at A = 9
c at A = 12
0.05 c at A = 15
c/V at A =9
0.00 c/V at A = 12
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 c/V at A = 15

= design points W/S (N/m^2)

112
T/W W/S and W/P W/S diagrams

Sanity CLmaxTO = 1.6

check CLmaxTO = 1.8
T/W versus W/S diagram for a business jet CLmaxTO = 2.0
0.40 CLmaxTO = 2.2
stall clean conf.
0.35 stall landing conf.
CLmax land =1.6
0.30
CLmax land =2.0
0.25 CLmax land =2.4
V at A = 9
T/W0.20 V at A = 12
V at A = 15
0.15 c at A = 9
c at A = 12
0.10 c at A = 15
c/V at A =9
0.05
c/V at A = 12
0.00 c/V at A = 15
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Reference
Aircraft
W/S (N/m^2)

113
Conclusion

After having chosen a design point we have:

From WTO and W/S we find the reference area:
From WTO and W/P we find take-off engine power:
From WTO and T/W we find take-off engine thrust:
An assumed value of , ,
A chosen value for number of engines () and aspect ratio ()

Note: there must be consistency in the chosen aspect ratio for weight
estimation and preliminary sizing!

114