Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Brain and Behavior

 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Neuron and Its Parts

Neuron: Individual nerve cell

Dendrites: Receive messages from other neurons
Soma: Cell body; body of the neuron
Axon: Fiber that carries information away from the cell body

Axon Terminals: Branches that link the dendrites and somas

of other neurons
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.1

FIGURE 2.1 A neuron, or nerve cell. In the right foreground you can see a nerve cell fiber in cross
section. The upper left photo gives a more realistic picture of the shape of neurons. Nerve
impulses usually travel from the dendrites and soma to the branching ends of the axon. The nerve
cell shown here is a motor neuron. The axons of motor neuron stretch from the brain and spinal
cord to muscles or glands of the body.
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Synapses

Messages from one neuron to another pass over a microscopic

gap called a synapse
Synapse: Microscopic gap between two neurons over which
messages pass
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.5

FIGURE 2.5 A highly magnified view of a synapse. Neurotransmitters are stored in tiny sacs
called synaptic vesicles (VES-ihkels). When a nerve impulse reaches the end of an axon, the
vesicles move to the surface and release neurotransmitters. These molecules cross the synaptic
gap to affect the next neuron. The size of the gap is exaggerated here; it is actually only about
one millionth of an inch. Some transmitter molecules excite the next neuron, and some inhibit its
activity.
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that alter activity in neurons; brain chemicals that

carry messages.
Acetylcholine: Activates muscles
Dopamine: Muscle control
Serotonin: Mood and appetite control

Receptor Site: Areas on the surface of neurons and other cells

that are sensitive to neurotransmitters
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Neural Regulators

Neural Peptides: Regulate activity of other neurons

Endorphins: Released by pituitary gland; also help to
relieve pain
Do not send messages.
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Nerves and Neurons

Nerves: Large bundles of axons and dendrites (Not neurons)

Myelin: Fatty layer of tissue that coats axons
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) occurs when myelin layer is
destroyed; numbness, weakness, and paralysis occur
Neurogenesis: Production of new brain cells
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Neural Networks

Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System: All parts of the nervous system
outside of the brain and spinal cord
Somatic System: Links spinal cord with body and sense
organs; controls voluntary behavior
Autonomic System: Serves internal organs and glands;
controls automatic functions such as heart rate and blood
pressure
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.6

FIGURE 2.6 (a) Central and peripheral nervous systems. (b) Spinal nerves, cranial nerves, and
the autonomic nervous system.
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Two Divisions of the Autonomic System

Sympathetic: Arouses body; emergency system

Parasympathetic: Quiets body; most active after an emotional
event
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.8

FIGURE 2.8 Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system. Both
branches control involuntary actions. The sympathetic system generally activates the body. The
parasympathetic system generally quiets it. The sympathetic branch relays its messages through
clusters of nerve cells outside the spinal cord.
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.7

FIGURE 2.7 Subparts of the nervous system.

 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Researching the Brain

Computed Tomographic Scanning (CT): Computer-enhanced

X-ray image of the brain or body
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Uses a strong magnetic
field, not an X-ray, to produce an image
Functional MRI (fMRI): MRI that also records brain activity
Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Computer-generated
color image of brain activity, based on glucose consumption in
the brain
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Cerebral Cortex

Definition: Outer layer of the cerebrum

Cerebrum: Two large hemispheres that cover upper part of the
brain
Corticalization: Increase in size and wrinkling of the cortex
Cerebral Hemispheres: Right and left halves of the cortex
Corpus Callosum: Bundle of fibers connecting cerebral
hemispheres
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Split Brains

Corpus Callosum is cut; done to control severe epilepsy

(seizure disorder).
Result: The person now has two brains in one body.
This operation is rare and is often used as a last resort.
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.19

FIGURE 2.19 Basic nerve pathways of vision. Notice that the left portion of each eye connects
only to the left half of the brain; likewise, the right portion of each eye connects to the right brain.
When the corpus callosum is cut, a split brain results. Then visual information can be sent to just
one hemisphere by flashing it in the right or left visual field as the person stares straight ahead.
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.22
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

When the Brain Fails to Function Properly

Association Cortex: Combine and process information from the

five senses
Aphasia: Speech disturbance resulting from brain damage
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.18

Spatial neglect
resulting from a
right hemisphere
stroke. Notice
the neglect of
the left side of
the pictures
which were
being
reproduced.
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

When the Brain Fails to

Function Properly (cont'd)

Brocas Area: Related to language and speech production

If damaged, person knows what s/he wants to say but cant
say the words
Wernickes Area: Related to language comprehension
If damaged, person has problems with meanings of words,
NOT pronunciation
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Subcortex

Hindbrain (Brainstem)
Medulla: Connects brain with the spinal cord and controls
vital life functions such as heart rate and breathing
Pons (Bridge): Acts as a bridge between medulla and other
structures
Influences sleep and arousal
Cerebellum: Located at base of brain
Regulates posture, muscle tone, and muscular
coordination
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Subcortex: Reticular Formation (RF)

Lies inside medulla and brainstem

Associated with alertness, attention and some reflexes
(breathing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting)
Reticular Activating System (RAS): Part of RF that keeps the
cortex active and alert
Its alarm clock
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.25

FIGURE 2.25 This simplified drawing shows the main structures of the human brain and describes
some of their most important features. (You can use the color code in the foreground to identify
which areas are part of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.)
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Forebrain

Structures are part of the Limbic System: System within

forebrain closely linked to emotional response
Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cortex;
switchboard
Hypothalamus: Regulates emotional behaviors and motives
(e.g., sex, hunger, rage, hormone release)
Amygdala: Associated with fear responses
Hippocampus: Associated with storing memories; helps us
navigate through space
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.26

FIGURE 2.26 Parts of the limbic system. Although only one side is shown here, the hippocampus
and the amygdala extend out into the temporal lobes at each side of the brain. The limbic system
is a sort of primitive core of the brain strongly associated with emotion.
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Endocrine System

Glands that pour chemicals (hormones) directly into the

bloodstream or lymph system
Pituitary Gland: Regulates growth via growth hormone
Too little means person will be smaller than average
Hypopituitary Dwarfs: As adults, perfectly
proportioned but tiny
Too much leads to giantism
Excessive body growth
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Endocrine System (cont'd)

Acromegaly: Enlargement of arms, hands, feet, and facial

bones
Too much growth hormone released late in growth period
Andre the Giant
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

Endocrine System Concluded

Pineal Gland: Regulates body rhythms and sleep cycles.

Releases hormone melatonin, which responds to daily
variations in light.
Thyroid: In neck; regulates metabolism.
Hyperthyroidism: Overactive thyroid; person tends to be
thin, tense, excitable, nervous.
Hypothyroidism: Underactive thyroid; person tends to be
inactive, sleepy, slow, obese.
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC
Figure 2.27
 Introduction to Psychology: KCC

The Adrenal Glands

Adrenals: Arouse body, regulate salt balance, adjust body to

stress, regulate sexual functioning; located on top of kidneys
Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (also known as
adrenaline and noradrenaline)
Epinephrine arouses body; is associated with fear
Norepinephrine arouses body; is linked with anger

Remember This has been a

simplified view of the brain and nervous
system.