IMAGE CLASSIFICATION

DATA INTEGRATION
AND ANALYSIS
EVREN BAKILAN
ITU
UUBF
110020228
BAHAR(2006)
 What is Remote Sensing?
The science and art of obtaining information about an
object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data
acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object,
area, or phenomenon under investigation.
The practice of deriving information about the earth's land
and water surfaces using images acquired from an overhead
perspective, using electromagnetic radiation in one or more
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, reflected or emitted
from the earth's surface.
Applications of Remote Sensing

Meteorology (Weather Prediction)

Climatology
Oceanography
Costal Studies
Water Resources
Geology
Archeology
Land cover\land use
 Principle of Remote Sensing
Interaction between incident radiation and the targets of interest

Energy Source or Illumination (A) Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)

Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E)
Interaction with the Target (C) Interpretation and Analysis (F)
Reflected
Light
The PIXEL
Wavelength (Bands)
 Band Combinations
3,2,1

4,3,2

5,4,3
 Feature space image
A graphical
representation of
the pixels by plotting
2 bands vs. each
other

Band 4
For a 6-band
Landsat image,
there are 15 feature
space images Band 3
Each color
represents a
different
cluster pixels
that may
correspond to
the land cover
classes you
are interested
in
 Image Classification

Why classify?
Make sense of a landscape

Place landscape into categories

(classes)
Forest, Agriculture, Water, etc
Classification scheme = structure
of classes

Depends on needs of users

 What is a Classified Image
Image has been processed to put each pixel into
a category
Result is a vegetation map, land use map, or
other map grouping related features
Categories are defined by the intended use of
the map
Can be few or many categories, depending on
the purpose of the map and available resources
Land Cover Classification

Defining the pieces that make up the puzzle

 Land cover classification steps
Define why you want a classified image, how will
it be used?
Decide if you really need a classified image
Define the study area
Select or develop a classification scheme
(legend)
Select imagery
Prepare imagery for classification
Collect ancillary data
Choose classification method and classify
Adjust classification and assess accuracy
Image Classification
 Example Uses
Provide context
Landscape planning or assessment
Research projects
Drive models
Global carbon budgets
Meteorology
Biodiversity
 Application in Agriculture
A - color infrared photograph of big lake B - classified image of big lake

C - QuickBird image of big lake D - classified satellite image

Basic Strategy: How do you do
it?
Use radiometric properties of remote
sensor
Different objects have different spectral
signatures
40
35
30
25
Vegetation
20
Soil
15
10
5
0
Band Band Band Band Band Band
1 2 3 4 5 7
 Basic Strategy: How do you do it?

In an easy world, all Vegetation pixels

would have exactly the same spectral
signature
Then we could just say that any pixel in an
image with that signature was vegetation
Wed do the same for soil, etc. and end up
with a map of classes
 Image Classification

Example: Near Marys Peak

Input data classification process Output data

(Digital) (Thematic)
Image Classification

black = water
yellow = open/field
dark green = dense forest
light green = sparse forest
bronze = mixed urban
red = dense urban
 Query Formulation

Query patch
pertaining to some
Satellite Image
semantics,
Database Ranked
e.g. mountains
Results

Purpose ?
Geography - Find mountainous regions with snow-caps (low-level semantics).
Forestry Find forests of a certain density, analyze deforestation (mid-level semantics).
Military Find air-bases in certain regions of the world (high-level semantics).
 Basic strategy: Dealing with
variability
Classification:
Delineate boundaries 45

40

of classes in n-
35

30

dimensional space

Band 4
25
20

Assign class names to 15

10

pixels using those

5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

boundaries Band 3
 Information Classes vs.
Spectral Classes
Information classes are categorical, such
as crop type, forest type, tree species,
different geologic units or rock types, etc.
Spectral classes are groups of pixels that
are uniform (or near-similar) with respect
to their brightness values in the different
spectral channels of the data.
 Classification Strategies
Two basic strategies
Supervised classification
We impose our perceptions on the spectral data
Unsupervised classification
Spectral data imposes constraints on our
interpretation
 Image Classification

Classification

Supervised Classification Unsupervised Classification

(Clustering)

Distribution Free Statistical Techniques

No extensive prior knowledge required
Euclidean classifier Unknown, but distinct, spectral classes are
K-nearest neighbour generated
based on probability Limited control over classes and identities
Minimum distance distribution models, which No detailed information
Decision Tree may be parametric
or nonparametric
Classification Approaches
Supervised Classification
Supervised Classification
 Supervised Classification
Supervised classification requires the
analyst to select training areas where
he/she knows what is on the ground Mean Spectral
and then digitize a polygon within that The computer then creates...
Signatures
area
Conifer

Known Conifer
Area

Water
Known Water
Area

Deciduous

Known Deciduous
Area

Digital Image
 Supervised Classification
Mean Spectral Information
Signatures Multispectral Image (Classified Image)

Conifer

Deciduous

Water Unknown
Spectral Signature
of Next Pixel to be
Classified
 Areas of Interest
Simple line detection
filters
Detection of geometric features 2 -1 -1 -1 -1 2

e.g. buildings,
high-pass filtering & tresholding
template matching -1 2 -1 -1 2 -1

-1 -1 2 2 -1 -1

(temporal) Change Detection -1 2 -1 -1 -1 -1

subtraction, ratio, correlation (movement)

comparison of classified images

-1 2 -1 2 2 2

-1 2 -1 -1 -1 -1
 Areas of Interest
Image Segmentation
detection of homogenous surfaces

by means of tresholding or edge-detection

Region-growing algorithm

High-pass?
Std-filtering?
NDI?
 Areas of Interest
1) Line-detection filters 2) Averaging filter 3) tresholding

2 -1 -1 -1 -1 2

-1 2 -1 -1 2 -1
1/9 1/9 1/9
-1 -1 2 2 -1 -1
1/9 1/9 1/9

-1 2 -1 -1 -1 -1 1/9 1/9 1/9

-1 2 -1 2 2 2

-1 2 -1 -1 -1 -1

7
x 10

4.5
100 4 100 100

3.5
200 200 200
3
2.5 300
300 300
2

400 1.5 400 400

1
500 500 500
0.5

100 200 300 400 500 600 100 200 300 400 500 600 100 200 300 400 500 600
Supervised Classification

Training
Training Areas
Supervised Classification

Segmentation
 Supervised Classification

Common Classifiers:
Parallelpiped
Minimum distance to mean
Maximum likelihood
 Supervised Classification:
Statistical Approaches
Minimum distance to
mean

Find mean value of

pixels of training sets
in n-dimensional space

All pixels in image

classified according to
the class mean to
which they are closest
 Supervised Classification
Parallelepiped 45

Approach
40
35

30

Pros:

Band 4
25
20

Simple 15

10

Makes few
5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
assumptions about Band 3

character of the
classes
 Supervised
Classification
Supervised Classification:
Minimum Distance
Minimum distance
Pros:
All regions of n-dimensional space
are classified
Allows for diagonal boundaries (and
hence no overlap of classes)
Maximum Likelihood Classifier
Mean Signature 1
Relative Reflectance

Candidate Pixel

Mean Signature 2

It appears that the candidate pixel is

closest to Signature 1. However, when
we consider the variance around the
signatures

Blue Green Red Near-IR Mid-IR

Maximum Likelihood Classifier
Mean Signature 1
Relative Reflectance

Candidate Pixel

Mean Signature 2

The candidate pixel clearly belongs to

the signature 2 group.

Blue Green Red Near-IR Mid-IR

 Supervised Classification

In addition to classified image, you can

construct a distance image

For each pixel, calculate the distance between

its position in n-dimensional space and the
center of class in which it is placed

Regions poorly represented in the training

dataset will likely be relatively far from class
center points
May give an indication of how well your training set
samples the landscape
 Supervised Classification

Some advanced techniques

Neural networks
Use flexible, not-necessarily-linear
functions to partition spectral space

Contextual classifiers
Incorporate spatial or temporal
conditions
Linear regression
Instead of discrete classes, apply
proportional values of classes to each
pixel; ie. 30% forest + 70% grass
 Decision Rules
in Spectral Feature Space

Parallelpiped Minimum Distance Maximum Likelihood

to Means (Discriminant Analysis
Classified Image
Unsupervised Classification
 Unsupervised Classification
In unsupervised classification, the spectral data
imposes constraints on our interpretation
How? Rather than defining training sets and carving
out pieces of n-dimensional space, we define no
classes beforehand and instead use statistical
approaches to divide the n-dimensional space into
clusters with the best separation
After the fact, we assign class names to those clusters
Unsupervised Classification

Clustering
 Unsupervised Classification
The analyst requests the computer to examine
the image and extract a number of spectrally
Spectrally Distinct Clusters
distinct clusters

Cluster 3 Cluster 6

Cluster 5 Cluster 2

Cluster 1 Cluster 4

Digital Image
 Unsupervised Classification Output Classified Image
Saved Clusters

Cluster 3 Cluster 6

Next Pixel to
be Classified
Cluster 5 Cluster 2

Cluster 1 Cluster 4

Unknown
Unsupervised Classification
The result of the The analyst determines the
unsupervised classification is ground cover for each of the
not yet information until clusters

??? Water

??? Water

??? Conifer

??? Conifer

??? Hardwood

??? Hardwood
Unsupervised Classification
It is a simple process to The result is essentially
regroup (recode) the clusters the same as that of the
into meaningful information supervised classification:
classes (the legend).
Land Cover Map Legend
Labels
Water
Water

Water
Conif.
Conifer

Hardw.
Conifer

Hardwood

Hardwood
Unsupervised Classification
Evaluating Signatures--
Signature Ellipses
Bands m and n
Signature 1

Signature 2

Signature 3

Band m

They dont overlap in bands m and n.

 Sources of Errors
Acquisition
(Geometric Aspects, Data Processing
Sensor Systems, (Geometric Rectification,
Platforms, Radiometric Rectification,
Ground Control, Data conversion)
Scene Considerations)

Implementation
Data Analysis
ERROR (Quantitative Analysis,
Classification System,
Data Generalization)
Decision Making
x(i, j ) d ( y (i, j )) e(i, j )
Data Conversion
(Raster to Vector
Final Product Presentation Error Assessment
Spatial Error (Sampling Vector to Raster)
Thematic Error Error Matrix
Locational Accuracy)
Unsupervised Classification
Post classification sorting - labeling

Cluster 1

Cluster 2
Class 1
Cluster 3
Class 2
Cluster 4

Cluster 5
Class 3
Cluster 6

Cluster 7

Cluster 8
 Unsupervised Classification
Pros
Takes maximum advantage of spectral
variability in an image
Cons
The maximally-separable clusters in spectral
space may not match our perception of the
important classes on the landscape
 Unsupervised Classification
Results from Clustering - Spectral Classes
 Data Analysis
I y (i, j ) , where y(i,j) is a vector representing
Input data is a digital data the intensivity of the bands (eg red,
green, blue) for the pixel (i,j)

1)Image Rectification and Restoration x(i, j ) d ( y (i, j )) e(i, j )

Geometric Correction y (i, j ) f ( x(i, j ))
Radiometric Correction
Noise Removal
min ( y (i, j ) y(i, j )) 2


i , jI

2)Image Enhancement
The objective is to create new images from the original image data in
order to increase the amount of information that can be visually
interpreted from the data.

3) Image Classification
 ISODATA Procedure
Arbitrary cluster means are established,
The image is classified using a minimum
distance classifier
A new mean for each cluster is calculated
The image is classified again using the new
cluster means
Another new mean for each cluster is
calculated
The image is classified again...
 ISODATA Procedure

After each iteration, the algorithm calculates

the percentage of pixels that remained in the
same cluster between iterations
When this percentage exceeds T (convergence
threshold), the program stops or
If the convergence threshold is never met, the
program will continue for M iterations and then
stop.
 ISODATA -- A Special Case of
Minimum Distance Clustering
Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis
Technique
Parameters you must enter include:

N - the maximum number of clusters that you want

T - a convergence threshold and

M - the maximum number of iterations to be

performed.
ISODATA clusters
 ISODATA Pros and Cons

Not biased to the top pixels in the image (as

sequential clustering can be)
Non-parametric--data does not need to be normally
distributed
Very successful at finding the true clusters within
the data if enough iterations are allowed
Cluster signatures saved from ISODATA are easily
incorporated and manipulated along with
(supervised) spectral signatures
Slowest (by far) of the clustering procedures.
Classification -- Final Thoughts

Classifications are never complete -- they

end when time and money run out
Classification is iterative -- its tough to get it
right the first few iterations
Consider a hybrid classification -- part
supervised, part unsupervised
Manual Classification and/or Editing is not
cheating!
Landsat ETM+
Digital color infrared
Acquired: April 21, 2003
Spatial resolution: 30 meters
Landsat TM
Digital color infrared
Acquired: February 17, 1989
Spatial resolution: 30 meters
Landsat MSS
Digital color infrared
Acquired: March 14, 1975
Spatial resolution: 57 meters
Corona
Panchromatic (b/w) film
Acquired: March 2, 1969
Spatial Resolution: 3 meters
Examples of Classification
Results
Scene Classification
 Some sample patches

Car

Pavement

Road

Tree
Thank you for your attention

Questions?
Attention!