STRATIGRAPHY

Stratigraphy is the study that deals with

the formation, composition, sequence,
and correlation of stratified rocks

Stratigraphy:
Many past geologic events have resulted in strata or layers of
sediment which have formed a stacked vertical sequence of sedimentary
rocks. A good example is sediment in the form of mud and sand from a river
accumulating on a sea-floor. The sediment forms a layer which eventually
becomes hardened or lithified into a sedimentary rock.
The importance of stratigraphic sequences is that they provide a rock record
of past events e.g. a pebbly beach may be recorded as a CONGLOMERATE,
a sandy river may be recorded as a layer of SANDSTONE; a clayey tidal flat
as a layer of SHALE.

Pebbly beach

conglomerate
Sandy beach sandstone
Muddy marsh

shale
 Stratigraphy is the study of these layered rocks, especially
their sequence, correlation from place to place, relative ages and
interpretation. Several important stratigraphic principles
emerged from the study of stratigraphy centuries ago by the
early founders of the science of geology:
NICOLAUS STENO (1669)

1. Principle of Superposition: In any sequence of undisturbed strata, the

oldest layer is at the bottom and higher layers are successively younger.
Connected to this is the idea of conformable and unconformable sequences.
A conformable sequence is one in which there has been continuous
deposition of sediment such that the resulting rocks grade one into another
via gradational contacts. An unconformable sequence is one in which
deposition has been interrupted by periods of erosion, causing removal of
some layers and resulting in erosional contacts. The unconformity
represents a GAP in the rock record. Various types of unconformities result,
including angular unconformities (sedimentary strata meet at an angle),
disconformities (essentially parallel strata) and nonconformities (younger
strata on older metamorphic/igneous rocks).
Harry Williams, Historical Geology
Continuous deposition of
sediment
layers.

Uplift and folding of conformable

sequence of sedimentary rocks.

Erosion forms an erosion surface.

Renewed deposition forms an

angular unconformity.
2. Principle of Original Horizontality: Most sedimentary rocks formed
originally in close-to-horizontal layers (although many have since been moved
from their original position).
Undeformed strata

Deformed strata (tilted)

3. Principle of Original Lateral Continuity: Originally sedimentary strata
extended in all directions until they either; thinned out, ended abruptly at
some kind of barrier or graded into a different kind of sedimentary rock.
This principle is important for correlating sedimentary rocks from place
to place i.e. across a valley. Stratigraphic correlation is the practice of
"matching up" equivalent bodies of rock from different locations. The
equivalence may be in terms of lithology (lithostratigraphic correlation),
age ( chronostratigraphic correlation) or fossil content ( Biostratigraphy).
JAMES HUTTON (1726 - 1797)
4. Principle of Uniformitarianism: "The present is the key to the past" i.e.
geologic processes operating today also operated in the past. e.g. river deposits
forming today have a similar composition and character as their ancient
counterparts; glacial erosional and depositional features are basically the
same today as in the past...etc.

Modern Ancient
sand dune sand dune
WILLIAM "STRATA" SMITH (1769 - 1839)
5. Principle of Biological Succession: Different kinds of plants and animals
succeed one another in time because life has evolved continuously; therefore only
rocks formed during the same age can contain similar assemblages of fossils.
Since these fossil assemblages are unique for particular periods of the past, they
can be used to:
a. correlate rocks from around the world, and to
b. order rock layers into a sequence of relative age (i.e. older . newer).
CHARLES LYELL (1830)
6. Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships: Any geologic feature which cuts
across or penetrates another body of rock must be younger than the rock mass
penetrated.
7. Principle of Inclusions: Any rock that contains fragments of an adjacent
rock must be younger than the adjacent rock.
What was the sequence of events?
Harry Williams, Historical Geology
Harry Williams, Historical Geology
 Walthers Law and overlapping of facies

A marine transgression is a
geologic event during which
sea level rises relative to the
land and the shoreline moves
toward higher ground,
resulting in flooding.
The opposite of transgression
is regression, in which the sea
level falls relative to the land
and exposes former sea bottom.
Marine Trangression
 Marine Regression

Walthers Law
Sedimentary environments that started out side-by-side will end
up overlapping one another over time due to transgressions and
regressions.
 Lithostratigraphic Units
A lithostratigraphic unit is a defined body of sedimentary, extrusive igneous,
metasedimentary, or metavolcanic strata which is distinguished on the basis of
lithic characteristics and stratigraphic position. A lithostratigraphic unit
generally conforms to the Law of Superposition and commonly is stratified and
tabular in form.

Supergroup. A supergroup is a formal assemblage of related or superposed groups, or of groups and

formations. Such units have proved useful in regional and provincial syntheses. Supergroups should be
named only where their recognition serves a clear purpose.
Group. A group is the lithostratigraphic unit next higher in rank to formation; a group may consist entirely
of named formations, or alternatively, need not be composed entirely of named formations.
Formation. The formation is the fundamental unit in lithostratigraphic classification. A formation is a body
of rock identified by lithic characteristics and stratigraphic position; it is mappable at the Earth's surface
or traceable in the subsurface.
Member. A member is the formal lithostratigraphic unit next in rank below a formation and is always a
part of some formation. It is recognized as a named entity within a formation because it possesses
characteristics distinguishing it from adjacent parts of the formation. A formation need not be divided into
members unless a useful purpose is served by doing so. Some formations may be divided completely into
members; others may have only certain parts designated as members; still others may have no members.
Bed(s). A bed, or beds, is the smallest formal lithostratigraphic unit of sedimentary rocks.
Flow. A flow is the smallest formal lithostratigraphic unit of volcanic flow rocks. A flow is a discrete,
extrusive, volcanic body distinguishable by texture, composition, order of superposition, paleomagnetism,
or other objective criteria.

From NASC, 2005

Boundaries between Lithostratigraphic Units
Boundaries of lithostratigraphic units are placed at
positions of lithic change. Boundaries are placed at
distinct contacts or may be selected at some arbitrary
level within zones of gradation. Both vertical and lateral
boundaries are based on the lithic criteria that provide
the greatest unity and utility.

From NASC, 2005

Correlation of Lithostratigraphic Units
Correlation is a procedure for showing similarity between
geographically separated parts of a geologic unit. Correlation is
one of the most important objectives of stratigraphy.
Formal and Informal Lithostratigraphic Units
Formally named units are those that are named in accordance with an
established scheme of classification; the fact of formality is conveyed by
capitalization of the initial letter of the rank or unit term (for example, Morrison
Formation). Informal units, whose unit terms are ordinary nouns, are not
protected by the stability provided by proper formalization and recommended
classification procedures.
Requirements for Formally Named Geologic Units. Naming, establishing,
revising, redefining, and abandoning formal geologic units require publication in a
recognized scientific medium of a comprehensive statement which includes:
intent to designate or modify a formal unit;
designation of category and rank of unit;
selection and derivation of name;
specification of stratotype (where applicable);
description of unit;
definition of boundaries;
historical background;
dimensions, shape, and other regional aspects;
geologic age;
correlations; and possibly
genesis (where applicable).

From NASC, 2005

Formation.The primary formal unit of lithostratigraphic classification.
Formations are the only formal lithostratigraphic units into which the stratigraphic
column everywhere should be divided completely on the basis of lithology.
The contrast in lithology between formations required to justify their establishment
varies with the complexity of the geology of a region and the detail needed for
geologic mapping and to work out its geologic history.
No formation is considered justifiable and useful that cannot be delineated at the
scale of geologic mapping practiced in the region. The thickness of formations may
range from less than a meter to several thousand meters
Procedures for Establishing Lithostratigraphic Units
1.Stratotypes and type localities as standard of definition. Each formal
lithostratigraphic unit should have a clear and precise definition or
characterization.
2. The designation of a stratotype for a layered unit or a type locality for a non
layered unit is essential.
3. Where a complete section of a unit does not crop out in an area, the lower and
upper boundary-stratotypes at specific sections are designated.
4.Boundaries of lithostratigraphic units are placed at positions of lithologic
change.
5.Stratigraphic sequences of similar lithologic composition but separated by
regional unconformities should be mapped as separate lithostratigraphic units.
7.The name of lithostratigraphic units follows the general rules for naming
stratigraphic units.
8.A simple lithologic term indicating its dominant rock type maybe used instead
of the unit-term indicating its rank (group, formation ,member, bed).
9.The names of most formal stratigraphic units consist of an appropriate
geographic name combined with an appropriate term indicating the kind and rank
of the unit, e.g. LaLuna Formation.
Importance of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy in Petroleum Exploration
1.Sedimentary rocks are the most important and interesting type of rock to the
petroleum industry because most oil and gas accumulations occur in them;
igneous and metamorphic rocks rarely contain oil and gas.

2. All petroleum source rocks are sedimentary.

3. Furthermore, most of the worlds oil lies in sedimentary rock formed from
marine sediments deposited on the edges of continents. For example, there are
many large deposits that lie along the Gulf of Mexico and the Persian Gulf.
4.Carbonate reservoirs contain approximately 50% of the world
hydrocarbon reserves. The largest oil field, the Jurassic Ghawar field in
Saudi Arabia, and the largest gas field, the Permian/Triassic North field in
Qatar, are in carbonate rocks.
5. Petroleum Geosciences is principally concerned with the reservoir
basins which are also sedimentary in nature.

6. Sediemntary rock like shales and evaporites form by far the best
seal/cap rocks.
Therefore knowledge of sedimentary rocks, sedimentary facies,
environment of deposition are all very important in oil exploration.

Because oil and natural gas almost always occur in stratified

sedimentary rocks, the process of locating petroleum reservoir traps
has been facilitated significantly by the use of stratigraphic concepts
and data.
Petroleum exploration without stratigraphic analysis degrades to
simply drilling the largest structures seen on seismicwithout
attempting to determine whether the source, reservoir, and seal exist.
SeismicStratigraphy
SeismicStratigraphyisbasicallyageologicapproachtothestratigraph
icinterpretationofseismicdata.
Seismicreflectionsallowthedirectapplicationofgeologicconceptsb
asedonphysicalstratigraphy
Sequence Stratigraphy was developed from seismic stratigraphy in the
1970s by Exxon.
Examines sedimentary packages over a large area(entire sedimentary
basin).
Sequence stratigraphy focuses on the relationships between sequences of
conformable layers and the unconformities that bound them.The strata
patterns were as distinctive as the biostratigraphic correlations.
.
1..HistoricalGeology/...GeologicTime.../G
EOL162-GeologicTime.ppt-
3.www.d.umn.edu/~mille066/.../3.
3.LithostratigraphicUnits.ppt-
2.www.guilford.edu/geology/Geo122/geo1
22strattime.ppt-
4.sjsugeology.org/.../powerpoint/Petsche_
Relative_and_Absolute_Dating.ppt