SYSTEM OF

CORDINATES
 1. Models of the figure of the Earth
 The expression figure of the
Earth has various meanings
in geodesy according to the way
it is used and the precision with
which the Earth's size and shape
is to be defined.
 The actual topographic surface is most
apparent with its variety of land forms and
water areas.
This is, in fact, the surface on which actual
Earth measurements are made.
The physical surface of the Earth is not a
mathematical expression, but to solve the
problems of science and practice is required
to know the spatial location of its points.
 There are various models of the figure of
the Earth:
Sphere
Geoid
Guasigeod
Ellipsoid
 Geoid
The geoid is the shape that the surface
of the oceans would take under the
influence of Earth's and rotation alone, in
the absence of gravity her influences
such as winds and tides.
This surface is extended through the
continents .
All points on the geoid have the same
gravity potential energy.
 Geoid, Quasigeoid
and Ellipsoid

Surface of
Earth
geoid quasigeoid
ocean geoid
Ellipsoid

plumb line

plumb line

The force of gravity acts everywhere perpendicular to the geoid,

meaning that plumb lines point perpendicular and water levels parallel to
the geoid
7
Geoid , Earth surface and
Ellipsoid
 The determination of the geoid is a
physical problem: if we knew the
mass density distribution within the
Earth we could compute the gravity
field and thus the geoid, to any
accuracy anywhere.
 The topo-density is not known with
an adequate accuracy .
In the 1960s Molodenskij declared
the geoid impossible to determine to
a sufficient accuracy and introduced
an other quantity known as the
quasigeoid Molodenskij
For the determination of the
quasigeoid it would not be
necessary to know the topo-density
as all the computations are done
not on the geoid surface but on the
surface of the Earth
The relation among the
quasigeod, geoid and reference
ellipsoid
 Quasigeoid can be accurately
determined relative to the surface of
the ellipsoid on the results of
astronomical, geodetic and
gravimetric measurements.
Quasigeoid surface coincides with
the surface of the geoid on the
territory of the seas and oceans and
on land it deviates from it within two
meters.
 Geoid and quasigeoid shape come
close to the correct figure
mathematical ellipsoid of revolution.
Therefore, as the basic level of the
surface in the processing of geodetic
measurements adopted ellipsoid of
revolution.
 The shape of an ellipsoid of revolution is
determined by the shape of
the ellipse which is rotated about its
minor (shorter) axis.
Two parameters are required.
One is invariably the equatorial radius,
which is the semi-major axis a.
The other parameter is usually the polar
radius or semi-minor axis b
 Earth Ellipsoid

a - semi-major
axis
b
b-axissemi-minor
1
ab

a

a
Flattening

1 ( b) / a

17
 Many methods exist for determination of the
axes of an Earth ellipsoid
meridian arc
astro-geodetic geoid determination
modern satellite geodesy
analysis and interconnection of
continental geodetic networks.
 Meridian
arc measurement is the
distance between two
points with the
same longitude, i.e.,
a segment of
a meridian curve or its
length. Two or more such
determinations at different
locations then specify the
shape of the reference
ellipsoid
 High precision land surveys
can be used to determine
the distance between two
places at nearly the same
longitude by measuring a
base line and a chain of
triangles.
The distance along the
meridian from one end point
to a point at the same
latitude as the second end
point is then calculated by
trigonometry.

The Struve Geodetic Arc is a chain of survey triangulations stretching

from Hammerfest in Norway to the Black Sea, through ten countries and over
2,820 km.
 The reference ellipsoid models listed below
have had utility in geodetic work and many
are still in use. The older ellipsoids are
named for the individual who derived them
and the year of development is given.
In 1887 the English surveyor Colonel
Alexander Ross Clarke was awarded the Gold Medal
of the Royal Society for his work in determining the
figure of the Earth.
The international ellipsoid was developed by
John Fillmore Hayford in 1910 and adopted by the
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
(IUGG) in 1924, which recommended it for
international use.
 In 1945 in the USSR ellipsoid dimensions
were set, calculated under the guidance of
prof. Feodosy Nikolaevich Krasovsky
On the ellipsoid Krasovsky established datum
Pulkovo-1942 coordinates (SC-42), SC-63,
used in Russia and some other countries.
Ellipsoid Krasovsky parameters are
semi-major axis - 6378245 m,
semi-minor axis - 6356863 m,
and the polar flattening
( b) / a 1 / 298,3
 World Geodetic System
The World Geodetic System ( WGS 84) being
used by the Global Positioning System. It is
geocentric and globally consistent within 1 m.
The WGS 84 originally
used the GRS 80
reference ellipsoid, but
has undergone some
minor refinements in later
editions since its initial
publication.
 Many different reference ellipsoids have
been used in the history of geodesy.
In pre-satellite days they were devised
to give a good fit to the geoid over the
limited area of a survey .
But, with the advent of GPS, it has
become natural to use reference
ellipsoids (such as WGS-84) with centre
at the centre of mass of the Earth and
minor axis aligned to the rotation axis of
the Earth.
.
PZ-90, is a geodetic datum defined for use in the
GLONASS system.
Ellipsoid parameters
Parameters PZ-90 WGS-84
Semi-major 6378136 6 378 137.0 m
, m
semi-minor axis b , m 6 356 752.314 245 m

Inverse flattening (1/f) 298,257839 298,257234

Coordinate system parameters WGS-84

and PZ-90 differ by small quantities, within
the accuracy of methods of determination.
 2. System of coordinates
 Geodesy is the study of the size and
shape of the earth and the determination
of coordinates of points on or above the
earth's surface.
 The following basic coordinate systems are
used in geodesy and surveying:
1. Geographic coordinate system
2. Terrestrial geocentric systems (Cartesian
coordinate system for a three-dimensional
space)
3.Cartesian coordinate system on a plane
4. Polar coordinate system
 A Geographic coordinate system is
a coordinate system that specifies
each point of the Earth by a three of
coordinates
latitude ,
longitude
and elevation H.
Geographic coordinate system

Longitude is the angle between

the plane of the Greenwich
meridian and a plane containing the
North Pole, South Pole and the
location in question .
m
Longitude is changed from west
to east from 0 to 3600.
The Prime Meridian, which passes
through the Royal Observatory,
The latitude of a point is the
angle between the equatorial plane
and the plumb line through the
point measured in the meridian
plane of the point. Latitude is ranges
from 0 at the Equator to 90 (North
pole or South pole. ).

The elevation is vertical distance

Greenwich, England, is called the (height) above or below a fixed
Greenwich meridian. reference surface ( geoid,
0
Earth's sea level, ellipsoid)

31
TERRESTRIAL GEOCENTRIC
SYSTEM
The origin is near the centre of the Earth
(geocentric coordinate system).
Axis OZ is aligned to the earth's axis of rotation,
Axis OX is the intersection between the equator
plane and the plane containing the Greenwich
meridian.
Axis OY complements the system to right.
The system is right-handed.
The position of the point M defined by
coordinates: X- abscissa ,ordinate Y and Z-
applicate.
TERRESTRIAL GEOCENTRIC SYSTEM

M
X = OM2
b H
Y = M 1M 2
Z = MM1
0

O a
B Y
L
2
1

X
Cartesian coordinate system
The Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies
each point in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates x and y. The left
Cartesian coordinate system is used in surveying.
The point of intersection O is
NORTH
the zero of the coordinate
system.
The value of x is called the x-
coordinate or abscissa and the
value of y is called the y-
EAST coordinate or ordinate.
WEST
The coordinates can also be
defined as the positions of
the perpendicular projections of
the point onto the two axes.
SOUTH
34
Polar coordinate system
This system is used for
determining the position of
points on the small areas in the
topographic survey.
The point O is the pole of
coordinate system. d

The axis X is the polar axis.

The angle is measured
counterclockwise from the axis X
to the line.
The d is distance or radius.
The position of point a is defined
pair of coordinates a (d, ) 35
 3.Direct and
Inverse Geodetic
Problems

36
Direct Geodetic Problem
It is the calculation of the coordinates
X2, Y2 of the second point, if known
coordinates X1, Y1 of the first point,
Grid azimuth (or bearing r) and
horizontal distance d between points.
Direct Geodetic Problem
Given:
2 Coordinates of point 1
(X1Xand
2= X 1 + x1-2
Y1)
grid azimuth 1-2 or
Y2= Y1 + y 1-2
bearing r1-2 and
x 1-2 =d
horizontal os r d1-2
distance
between points
1 y 1-2 =d sin r 1-2
Calculate:
Coordinates of point 2
(X2 and Y2)
38
Relationships Between Bearings and Azimuths:

Y Numerical value
quadran
t letters
quadrant

+ + r 1 = 1 From 0 to
NE
90

- + r2 = 180 2 From 90 to
SE
180

- - r3 = 3 180 From 180 to

SW
270

+ - r4 = 360 4 From 270 to

NW
360
 Problem 1. The coordinates of point A,
azimuth of line AB and the horizontal
distance between points A-B are known:
X A = 310.95 m YA = 427.10m, dAB = 135.47
m, AB= 128 39 '. Calculate the
coordinates of point B. Draw a figure.

Problem 2. The coordinates of point A,

bearing of line AB and the horizontal
distance between points A-B are known:
X A = 120.43 m YA = 300.45m, dAB = 65.31
m, NW:rAB= 24 55 '. Calculate the
coordinates of point B. Draw a figure.
 Inverse Geodetic Problem
This is the calculation of the
grid azimuth and length of
horizontal distance
d connecting two points with
known coordinates X1, Y1 and
X2, Y2

41
Inverse Geodetic Problem
,

y2 y1 y
tgr1 2
Given:
x2 x1 x
2 Coordinates of point 1
and 2 r (X1 and y
Y1;
12 rctg
X2 and Y2) x
Calculate:
determine thebearing r1-2
grid azimuth 1-2
grid azimuth 1-2 and
the length of horizontal
y
1 d
distance d x 2 y 2
cos r sin r

42
Relationships Between Bearings and Azimuths:

Y quadrant
Numerical value quadrant
letters

+ + r1 = 1
NE From 0 to 90

- + r2 = 180 2
SE From 90 to 180

- - r3 = 3 180
SW From 180 to 270

+ - r4 = 360 4
NW From 270 to 360
 Problem 3. There are the coordinates of points
A and B: XA = 264.92 m, YA = 312.04 m,
X B = 195.34 m, YB = 283,36m. Determine the
bearing, grid azimuth of line AB and the
length of horizontal distance between points A
and B . Draw a figure.
Gauss Kruger
projection

Gauss Kruger projection of the
projection is proposed by the German
mathematician, physicist and
astronomer Gauss in 1820s, after the
German geodesist Krueger in 1912 on
the projection formula to be added, it
is known as the Gauss Kruger
projection, also known as "cross
equiangular elliptic cylindrical
projection"
Gauss Kruger projection
 Gauss Kruger projection

There is an imaginary elliptic cylindrical cross set outside the earth

ellipsoid, and a radial (this is called the central meridian) elliptical central
axis through the center of the ellipsoid, and then use a projection method,
both sides of the central meridian by the certain the difference within the
area is projected to the elliptic cylinder.

48
 The elements on the surface (distance,
angle, graphics) will be projected onto the
plane, and the original distance, angle,
graphics rendering differences, this
difference is called Projection deformation
Projection deformation forms: angle
deformation, deformation and deformation
area length.
 The characteristics of Gauss Kruger projection:
1. The central meridian without deformation
2. In the same latitude, farther away from the
central meridian and the greater the deformation
maximum at the edge of projection zone.
3. In the same longitude, latitude is lower the
greater the deformation, maximum at the
equator.
 The central meridian and
the equator is a straight
line and the intersection to
the central meridian and
the equator 0 as the origin
of coordinates, projection
on the central meridian as
ordinate axis (X), to the
equator projection for the
horizontal axis (Y), thus
forming the Gauss plane
rectangular coordinate
system.
 The zones are
numbered starting from
the Greenwich meridian
toward the east.
So between longitudes
0 and 6 is the 1st
zone , between the
meridians 6 and 12
is second zone, etc.
 Our country is limited
by the meridians
23,6 west and
32,8 from the east;
latitudes 56 north
and 51,2 from the
south, thus is located in
4,5 and 6 zones Gauss
Kruger projection
 Longitude central
meridians are
calculated according
to their numbers

0 = 6 n - 3
where 0
longitude central (1)
meridians;
n number of
zone
 True ordinate and converted
ordinate
In order to avoid the negative
ordinate, is used a
conventional meridian with
-500 000m in the ordinate.
Thus the intersection the central
meridian and the equator has
coordinates
x=0 m , y=500 000 m.
The number of the zone should
be write in the front.
This is called the national
coordinate system of coordinate.
( SC-42, SC-95)
 True ordinate and converted ordinate
Yconv.=Y true +500 000 m and write the number of the
zone as the most significant digit
For example,
True ordinate The converted ordinate
Y true =+152833,5 m (in the 5 zone) Y conv.= 5 652833,5 m
(located in the east of the central meridian)
Y true = - 127893,6 m (in the 7zone) Y conv. = 7 372106,4 m
located in the west of the central meridian
 East
meridian
West longitude
meridian

Latitude and longitude lines are

Number of indicated with fine black tick
zone marks along the edges of the
latitude
map
longitude
 Longitude tick marks are on the top and
bottom edges of the map and latitude tick
marks are on the right and left edges. Note
that the degrees may be left off (as an
abbreviation) and you may only see the
minute and/or second designations.
Reference coordinates for latitude and
longitude (degrees, minutes, and seconds)
are black and located on the four corners of
the map.
 System of Coordinate
1942 (SC-42 )
The Cartesian coordinates in the Gauss-
Kruger projection calculated with
parameters of the Krasovsky ellipsoid
were called "Coordinate System 1942"
or SC-42
Its parameters were established in
the Soviet Union in 1942 as a result of
adjustment of the first order
triangulation, forming 87 polygons (4733
points).
 System of Coordinate 1995 (SC-95)
Created in 1995 in Russia from the joint
adjustment Astronomical Geodetic Network
(AGN) with, high-precision satellite data
26 points Space Geodetic Network (SPG)
134 points Doppler Geodetic Network (DGN)
and
35 points gravimetric network (WAN).
 In the Republic of Belarus the System of
Coordinate 1995 (SC-95) is introduced
in 2010, after the completion of the
modernization of the National Geodetic
Network.
System of Coordinate
1963 (SC-63)
System of Coordinate 1963 (SC-63)
coordinate system is used to create
Land Information System and land
cadastre.
 System of Coordinate 1963 (SC-63 )
SC-63 is based on the SC-42 or SC-95 and has
the following features:
system of coordinate is the 3-degree zone;
central meridian of zone is displaced by a certain
amount;
an abscissa of the points are corrected by
X;
ordinates of the points in SC-63 are increased by
250 km. The number of the zone is the most
significant digit
In the Republic of Belarus SC-63 consists of four
3-degree zones numbered 0, 1, 2 and 3.




1963 .
 The local coordinate systems are used
to produce large-scale plans of cities
and construction sites.
Each local coordinate system must
have a connection with the national
coordinate systems (SC-42, SC-95) .
A parameters are calculated for
connection local coordinate system
with national coordinate systems (SC-
42, SC-95) .
 The Local Coordinate Systems have been
established in 265 cities.
Most of the local coordinate systems (63.5%)
was established in 3-degree coordinate zone
or with a specially installed initial meridian
and is characterized by a very small error
caused by the projection method.
 The Constructional coordinate grid building is
the system fixed on the ground points in the form of a grid
of squares (rectangles).
The Constructional coordinate grid building is
used for the construction and reconstruction of industrial
complexes.