Earth Materials

Images from Strahler and Strahler, 2005

The Crust and its Composition

Igneous Rocks

Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks

The Cycle of Rock Change

 The Crust and its Composition
oxygen and silicon account for about 75% of the earth's crust

metallic elements iron, aluminum and the base elements

account for most of the rest

Figure11.1, p. 399
 The Crust and its Composition

the elements of the crust are combined in

inorganic chemical compounds called minerals

these minerals are mixed together in various

proportions to form different rock classes

rocks of the Earth's crust are grouped into three

major classes: igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks
 Igneous Rocks
igneous rocks consist mainly of silicate minerals containing silicon,
oxygen and metallic elements

less dense felsic minerals (from feldspar and silica) dominate the
igneous rocks of the upper crust while more dense mafic and ultramafic
(iron and magnesium) minerals dominate those of the lower crust

magma that solidifies below the Earths surface and remains

surrounded by older, preexisting rock is called intrusive igneous rock

where magma reaches the surface, it emerges as lava, which solidifies

to form extrusive igneous rock
 Igneous Rocks

intrusive igneous rocks solidify below the

Earths surface, they cool slowly and therefore
develop larger mineral crystals visible to the eye

extrusive igneous rocks cool very rapidly on the

land surface or ocean bottom and thus develop
smaller, microscopic size crystals
 Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks consist
mainly of silicate minerals
containing silicon, oxygen
and metallic elements

less dense felsic minerals

dominate the igneous
rocks of the upper crust
while more dense mafic
and ultramafic minerals
dominate those of the
lower crust

Figure11.4, p. 401
 Igneous Rocks
Intrusive (plutonic) igneous
rocks

granite: felsic intrusive igneous

rock (same minerals as
rhyolite)

diorite: intermediate intrusive

igneous rock
(same minerals as andesite)

gabbro: mafic extrusive igneous

rock (same minerals as basalt)

peridotite: ultramafic (olivine

rich)

Figure11.4, p. 401
 Igneous Rocks
Extrusive (volcanic) igneous
rocks

rhyolite: felsic extrusive igneous

rock (same minerals as granite)

andesite: intermediate
extrusive igneous rock
(same minerals as diorite)

basalt: mafic extrusive igneous

rock (same minerals as gabbro)

Figure11.4, p. 401
 Plutonic Rock in N. America

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/North_america_rock_plutonic.jpg
 Volcanic Rock in N. America

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/North_america_rock_volcanic.jpg
 Igneous Rocks
a body of intrusive
igneous rock is called
a pluton (granite
typically accumulates
in enormous plutons,
called batholiths
extending down
several kilometers
and occupying an
area of several
thousand square
kilometers)

a sill is a plate-like
pluton formed when
magma forces its way
between two
preexisting (usually
sedimentary) rock
Figure 11.9, p. 404
layers
 Igneous Rocks
a dike is a wall-like
pluton formed
when a vertical
rock fracture is
forced open by
magma

magma entering
small, irregular,
branching
fractures in the
surrounding rock
solidifies in a
branching network
of thin veins
Figure 11.9, p. 404
 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
mineral alteration occurs when the minerals in igneous rocks are
transformed chemically into new minerals that are more stable at or
near the Earths surface

processes of mineral alteration include oxidation, hydrolysis, and

solution

in the process of mineral alteration, solid rock is weakened,

softened, and fragmented, yielding particles of many sizes and
mineral compositions

when transported by a fluid mediumair, water, or glacial ice

these particles are known collectively as sediment

three major classes of sediment: clastic (from pre-existing rocks),

chemically precipitated sediment and organic sediment
 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
sediment accumulates in more-or less horizontal layers, called strata
(beds) - individual strata are separated from those below and above by
surfaces called stratification planes or bedding planes

Figure 11.15, p. 410

 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic
sediment
consists of
inorganic
rock and
mineral
fragments,
called clasts

Figure 11.14, p. 410

 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

chemically precipitated sediment consists of inorganic

mineral compounds precipitated from a saltwater
solution or as hard parts of organisms

in the process of chemical precipitation, ions in solution

combine to form solid mineral matter separate from the
solution (e.g. limestone, gypsum, chert)

organic sediment consists of the tissues of plants and

animals, accumulated and preserved after the death of the
organism (e.g. a layer of peat in a bog or marsh)
 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Hydrocarbons in sedimentary rocks are compounds of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen solid fuels such as coal, liquids such as
petroleum, and gas as natural gas

Figure 11.18, p. 412

 Metamorphic Rocks

metamorphic rocks are formed from preexisting rocks by

intense heat and pressure, which alter rock structure and
chemical composition

Heat and pressure are produced by various processes,

including but not limited to tectonic activity, deep burial, and
contact with magma.

shale is transformed to slate or schist, sandstone to

quartzite, and limestone to marble

gneiss forms when an intrusive magma cools next to igneous

or sedimentary rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks
example of a schist

Figure 11.19, p. 412

 Metamorphic Rocks
some metamorphic changes:

limestone marble
shale slate
sandstone quartzite
granite gneiss
basalt schist
 The Cycle of Rock Change
the cycle of rock change
describes how Earth
materials are cycled and
recycled by Earth
processes over
geologic time

in the surface
environment, rocks
weather into sediment

in the deep environment,

heat and pressure
transform sediment into
rock that is eventually
exposed at the surface

Figure 11.21, p. 416