Tea, Coffee,

Cocoa and
Vanilla

Submitted by:
Rattan Singh
2014FST30D
 Tea
Camellia sinensis is the species of plant whose leaves and leaf buds
are used to produce tea.

Tea is the most consumed beverage in the world next to water, with
per capita consumption of <120 mL/d

Tea play an active role in the prevention of certain kinds of

disorders, especially chronic diseases in humans.

Catechins are mostly recognized as responsible for the strong

antioxidant activity, the anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes properties of tea extracts.
Types of Tea

Green Tea
Black Tea
White Tea
Oolong tea
 This type of tea gets its flavour and
Black Tea colour from a natural oxidation
process.

The oxidization process for black tea

involves initial drying and rolling of
leaves soon after they are picked.

The unblended type is named after

the region in which it gets produced
such as Assam tea and Darjeeling
tea.
 This tea is made from un-oxidized
Green Tea leaves that are heated after picking.

This is done to destroy enzymes that

cause oxidation.

The next step is to roll them to

release their flavour.

Green tea is sweet and contains

vitamins and antioxidant properties,
so it is widely considered as a
healthy, fragrant and delicious
variant.
 It's the world's rarest and most expensive
White Tea tea, made from a specific tea plant variety.

The leaves and buds are left to wither in

sunlight and then are lightly processed to
prevent oxidation.

A particular processing method is involved

that raises small silvery hair-like substance
on the leaves and buds. But the exact
method of processing is a secret.

Authentic white tea has only been grown

in the Fujian province in China. However,
of late it is also grown in Taiwan, Northern
Thailand and Eastern Nepal.
 Oolong, usually from China and
Oolong Tea Taiwan, is a semi-fermented tea - a
cross between green and black teas
that's popular for its digestive
benefits.
The astringency of oolong tea is
lower and the sweetness taste is
stronger than those of green tea.

Thus the mellowness and sweetness

of oolong tea infusion are the
integrated taste of non-oxidized
catechins, some secondary
polyphenolic compounds, caffeine,
free amino acids and related sugars.
 Biochemical compounds responsible for
aroma(flavor) in tea
Compounds Aroma (flavor)

Linalool, Linalool oxide Sweet

Geraniol, Phenylacetaldehyde Floral

Benzaldehyde, Methyl salicylate, Phenyl Fruity

-ethanol

Trans-2-Hexenal, n-Hexanal, Cis-3-hexenol Fresh flavor

Kawakami, 1997
Biochemical compounds responsible for taste in tea

Compounds Taste

Polyphenol Astringent

Amino acids Brothy

Caffeine Bitter

Theaflavins Astringent

Thearubigin Ashy and slight astringent

Yamanishi, 1995
 Type of flavonoids

Content of flavonoids (% dry weight) in the leaves of green tea,

oolong tea, and black tea (mg/g)
Wang & Helliwell, 2001
The variation in composition of green and black teas

Peterson et al., 2005

 Advantages of tea
antioxidant activity
Reduces the risk of cancer
Reduces the risk of coronary
heart disease
Antibacterial and antiviral
effects
Anti-inflammatory effects
Reduces diabetes and renal
failure effects
 Coffee
Coffee is a brewed beverage prepared from roasted seeds of several species of
an evergreen shrub of genus Coffea

The two most common sources of coffee beans are Coffea arabica and robusta

Coffee is the second most traded commodity in the World after crude oil, and is
cultivated across 80 nations spanning Central and South America, Africa and Asia

The key coffee producing and exporting nations are Brazil, Vietnam, Columbia,
Indonesia, Ethiopia and India

Brazil is the Worlds largest producer, exporter and consumer of coffee, while
USA and European nations constitute key importing markets for coffee.

Wintgen, 2009
 TYPES OF COFFEE

Cafe Americano
It is a style of coffee prepared by
adding hot water to espresso, giving a
similar strength to but different flavour
from regular drip coffee. The strength
of an Americano varies with the
number of shots of espresso added
 Caff latte
A cafe latte is the Italian name for coffee ("cafe") with milk ("latte"). It is a
coffee beverage consisting of strong or bold coffee (sometimes espresso)
mixed with scalded milk in approximately a 1:1 ratio
 Cafe mocha
A caf mocha is a variant of a caff latte. Like a latte, but a portion of
chocolate is added, typically in the form of a chocolate syrup, although
other vending systems use instant chocolate powder. Mochas can contain
dark or milk chocolate.
Growing Requirement for germination of coffee
seeds

A high rate of ambient humidity

An air temperature of 30-35o c

A soil temperature of 28-300

A fall in air temperature slows down its
germination. This means that germination may
be delayed by up to 90 days during dry season.

If temperature remains below 100 c for long

periods, germination may not occur at all.
 Coffee plant takes approximately 3 years to
develop from seed germination to first fruit
production.

The fruit of coffee tree is known as cherry.

The beans which develop inside the cherry are

used as basic element for producing roast and
ground coffee, soluble coffee powder and
coffee liquor.

A well managed coffee tree can be productive

for up to 80 years or more but the economic
lifespan of a coffee plantation is rarely more
than 30 years.

Preedy, 2015
HARVESTI
NG
Harvesting
Mechanical
Manual Harvesting Harvesting
Two most commonly used manual harvesting
techniques

SELECTIVE HARVESTING STRIPPING

 SELECTIVE Selective harvesting consists of the hand picking
HARVESTING of ripe cherries only.

In the course of a harvesting season every tree is

visited several times, up to 10 times in some
countries, and only the ripe cherries should be
selectively picked each time.

The cherries are hand placed into bags or baskets

usually held at waist level by the pickers.

A worker can selectively harvest from 50 to 120

kg of fresh cherry per working day. This large
variation is not only due to individual skills and
training but also to the uniformity of maturation,
the yield per hectare, tree density, the gradient of
the slope, etc.
(Wintgen, 2009, CAC, 2009.)
 Stripping, also known as milking, consists of
removing all the cherries present on a branch
STRIPPING irrespective of their degree of ripeness.

There is usually only one picking round,

although a few Arabica growers may favor two
or three rounds.

The cherries at all maturation stages are

dropped either directly to the ground, that has
been previously cleared, or onto plastic sheets,
canvas or cloth spread under the trees.

Ideally harvesting should be delayed until the

percentage of unripe cherries is under 5%.

A worker can strip harvest between 120 and

250 kg of cherries per working day.
Wintgen, 2009
Equipment for MECHANICAL
HARVESTING
Large Harvesters on Light hand-held
wheel harvesters
 Basically all large harvesters work on the same
Large Harvesters on
principle: one or two vertical or forward-
wheel
leaning shaking heads that travel along the
coffee row causing the cherries to drop.

The shaking head is composed of a center

shaft and spoke-like rods made of synthetic
materials (e.g. fiberglass, nylon, graphite, etc.).

In the self-propelled machines the usual

arrangement is two shaking heads, one on each
side of the coffee row, dropping coffee onto a
fish-plate collection system which unloads
the cherries into a conveyance system that lifts
them to a pneumatic separator to discharge
leaves and other light impurities and to load
the clean cherries into bags or boxes.
Wintgen, 2009
 Its use is increasing in Brazil, especially in areas
Light Hand-held where the slope and tree spacing do not allow the
Harvesters use of the larger machines on wheels.

The hand-held harvesting tool is composed of two

sets of rods driven by a pneumatic piston. As the
tips of these hand-like sets of rods move, they
transmit vibrations to the branches of the tree and
cause the ripe cherries to fall on the previously
covered ground.

This individual shaking head is light and manually

operated so it can be directed to the branches or
parts of branches where maturation is more
uniform.

Hand held harvesters cause less damage to the trees

than harvesters on wheels.

Sivetz and Desrosier, 2003

 Coffee harvesting may have different objectives depending on the method
of processing as well as the availability and cost of labor.

Where the wet or semi-dry method is used, the main objective is to

maximize the percentage of ripe cherries harvested . On the other hand, if
the dry method is to be used, the usual objective is to harvest all cherries
simultaneously with the least percentage of unripe ones.

The harvesting of cherries is done either by hand picking or by mechanical

harvesting

With the harvesting technology available today, 100 % ripe cherries

harvesting may be only achieved by selective hand-picking, which is the
most expensive option available.

In the case of mechanical harvesting, the acting harvesting principle is

vibration. Selectivity may be obtained because unripe cherries are more
firmly attached to the branches than ripe cherries.
Jacquet, 1996
Coffee beans(seeds)
Winnower with sieves to remove impurities from coffee
beans
 Cherries must undergo either dry, semi-dry or
wet processing as soon as possible after
harvesting.

The storage of fresh cherries in bags, heaps,

hoppers or silos should not last more than 8
hours. Otherwise unwanted fermentation will
takes place.

Coffee cherries should not be kept in plastic

Processing bags. The damp air-tight atmosphere that
develops inside plastic bags favors unwanted
of coffee fermentation that damages coffee quality.

beans In emergency situations fresh cherries may be

stored for a longer period if they are kept under
water.
Three types of processing methods
1. DRY PROCESSING
2. SEMI-DRY PROCESSING
3. WET PROCESSING
DRY PROCESSING

Clarke and Macrae, 2009

 Light impurities such as leaves, stems and dust
WINNOWING are separated from the coffee cherries by
winnowing, i.e. with the help of an air flow.

In the traditional methods, cherries are thrown

up and caught again on the sieve several times.
Dust, leaves and other light impurities are
removed as the coffee moves up and down in
response to the special motion transmitted to
the cherries by trained hands.

Sand and small impurities pass through the

holes of the sieve and fall onto the ground.

The traditional manual system is being

gradually replaced by mechanical winnowers
that use a fan to either blow or suck out light
impurities
 Heavy impurities smaller or
bigger than the cherries like sand,
stones, mud balls, etc., are
separated from the coffee cherries
by sifting, i.e. by using two
vibrating screens with holes
which are smaller or bigger than
Sifting the cherries. The screens may be
arranged one after the other or
one above the other.
 Flotation
Flotation is used to separate stones and cherries with different moisture contents.

The initial moisture content of the mixture of strip-picked or mechanically harvested

cherries varies widely, from 65% in unripe and ripe fruits to 25-30 % in partially dried
ones.

Several systems are used for separation by flotation in water: static water tanks, siphon
tanks, channels with traps and mechanical washer-separators.

All systems are based on the difference of density between the sinkers (ripe and
unripe cherries which are denser and sink) and the floaters (partially dried cherries
which are less dense and float).

Even though stones that are bigger or smaller than the cherries are separated by sifting,
but stones of the same size as that of cherries can only be separated by flotation.
Preedy, 2015
Flotation by Siphon tank

Clarke and Macrae, 2009

Semi-dry (Pulped Natural)
processing
Flow chart showing semi-dry processing
Wet Processing

The objective of wet

processing is to
remove pulp and
mucilage from ripe
coffee cherries in an
environmentally
friendly way.
Pulping
The objective of pulping is to separate the pulp from the coffee
bean.

Principle
The pulp, which consists of the outer skin and a major part of the
mesocarp, is torn off by squeezing the cherries in one of the
following ways:

Between a pulping bar and a rotating disk (disk pulper)

Between a breast plate and a rotating drum (drum pulper)
passing through the slots of a screen(unripe cherry separator and
pulper, i.e. screen pulper)
Between a rotary drum and a stationary screen case
Horizontal drum pulper
Mucilage Removal
This operation aims to remove the residual part of the mesocarp,
called mucilage, which remains stuck to the endocarp (parchment
envelope) after pulping.

Principle
Mucilage is insoluble in water and clings to parchment too
strongly to be removed by simple washing. Mucilage can be
removed by fermentation followed by washing or by strong
friction in machines called mucilage removers.
Fermentation may be natural or accelerated by chemicals or
enzymes.
 Mucilage Removal or Natural Fermentation
Natural fermentation is carried out in concrete having different size and shape.

Natural fermentation may be dry (without water) or under water. Dry fermentation is faster but more
difficult to control.

Fermentation tanks must be protected by a roof to avoid drying of top layers and to protect the
coffee from rain.

This reaction is caused by enzymes (pectinases and pectease) which are naturally present in coffee
cherries.

Fermentation times can vary substantially, from 6 to 72 h, depending on the temperature, the
amount of mucilage and the concentration of peptic enzymes.

Coffee is held in fermentation tanks till the mucilage is completely digested and ready for washing.

when fermentation is deficient or too slow, butyric acid or propionic acid can develop, both of
which have an undesirable impact on coffee quality.

Wintgen, 2009
 Washing of
Fermented Coffee

Fermented coffee can be

washed manually in the tank
itself and in channels, by
centrifugal pumps or by
several types of specific
machines.
 The objective of drying is to lower the
Drying moisture content of cherry coffee to about
12% so as to preserve the beans safely in
storage.

Coffee moisture is 50-55 % or even more, at

the beginning of the drying.

Moisture levels below 10 or 11 % increase

the breakage of beans at hulling, specially
with Robusta that are more brittle.

Moisture contents above 12 % increase the

risks of quality and weight loss in storage.

Drying of coffee beans are done by :

Natural or Sun Drying
Artificial or Mechanical Dryers
 The objective of hulling is to remove the husk
Hulling and layer that cover the dry coffee beans.
Polishing
Coffee is polished to remove the thin layer of
silverskin (spermoderm) that is closely attached
to give the beans an extra gloss.

Principle
Rubbing the beans against each other and
against the metal parts of the machines
or
Tearing the husk as the coffee is pushed against
a sharp edge of a blade, of a screen hole or
both.

Polishing is carried out by friction as the beans

rub against each other and against the machine.

(Wintgen, 2009)
 Roasting(370F to 540F)

Roasting is most important factor in the development of the complex flavors

that make coffee enjoyable.

The formation of characteristic aroma, flavor, taste and color of the roasted
coffee beans result from decreased green coffee bean components such as
sucrose, free amino acids and chlorogenic acids as well as breakdown of
polysaccharides and proteins.

The longer the coffee beans are held in the roaster and / or the higher the
temperature ,the darker the coffee beans.

The roasting degree can be measured by judging the beans color by the naked
eye or a calorimeter or by the weight loss of water after roasting.

The higher the degree of roasting the lower the L value.

Preedy, 2015
Roasting Degrees of Coffee Beans

Preedy, 2015
Sualeh et al.,
2014
Sualeh et al., 2014
Classes of Volatile Compounds Identified in
Roasted Coffee Beans
 Decaffeinated coffee
decaffeinated coffee is generally consumed by people with
health disorders or those in search of a healthier lifestyle.
Decaffeination is performed before roasting.
The least costly caffeine extraction methods use an organic
solvent (dichloromethane or ethyl acetate) and Water/vapor.
The caffeine extracted from the green seeds can be recovered
and used for commercial products such as cola beverages and
pharmaceutical drugs.
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
allows up to 10 mg residual dichloromethane/kg roasted coffee
and the European Union allows 3 mg/kg coffee.

Farah, 2012
 Advantages of coffee
Coffee increases the level of alertness
Improves short-term memory
Permits better use of the prefrontal cerebral cortex
Antioxidant and antitoxic properties at cellular level
Prevents the formation of gallstones
Provides protection against degenerative brain
diseases like Alzeimers and Parkinsons.
Provides protection against colon and skin cancers
Production of cocoa powder
 Raw cocoa beans derived from the fruit of the plant Theobroma cacao
L. were used to produce cocoa powder and chocolate .

Cocoa as a food ingredient is becoming very popular in the food and

confection industry worldwide.

It is available in a wide variety of forms, colors and flavors.

A good quality cocoa powder should be relatively free flowing, stable

and uniform in colour and flavour. It should have good microbiological
quality and easy to handle by the user.

Cocoa powder is used in making beverages with other ingredients such

as milk and sugar while cocoa butter is used for chocolate production.
The components and composition of cocoa seed

Cloke et al., 2009

Chris et al.,
Manufacturing processes of cocoa beans into semi
finished products

Cloke et. al., 2009

 Cocoa powder processing

Harvest: Fresh cocoa pods were harvested ripe and

opened to extract the wet beans. The wet beans were
scooped with table knife from the pod into the
basket. The empty pods are discarded & used as
fertilizers.
 Fermentation
The basket containing the beans were initially lined and covered with
banana leaves. The wet beans with their pulps were allowed to ferment .

The fermentation process takes approx. 6 to 7 days

The beans are turned around three times during fermentation as it leads
to lot of heat being generated.

To check the fermentation status, some beans are cut open to see the
colour of the beans that indicates if the fermentation was long enough.
(brown = fully fermented,
purple = not enough fermented)

The beans have a humidity of 16 to 17%

Chemical changes in the pulp during fermentation

Cloke et al., 2009

 Drying: The fermented cocoa beans were dried in hot air oven at a
temperature of 600 C for 23 hours. It can be carried out using the natural
or artificial drying methods.

Alkalization: During alkalization alkali solution is added to the nibs and

processed in a pressurized vessel to change its colour (range from
reddish to dark brown) and pH.

Roasting: In the roasting process the cocoa nibs (natural or alkali

treated) are roasted at high temperatures (120-150C) to further develop
the aroma and the typical chocolate flavour. Because of different sizes
of the cocoa beans , cocoa beans should have different roasting time.

Kibbling: The roasted beans were cracked (kibbled) after

which the shells were separated from the roasted-
cotyledons by winnowing.
 Pressing: The cocoa mass samples were pressed using a
hydraulic-press and muslin cloth in order to extract the fat
(cocoa-butter).

Grinding: The dried pressed cake for each sample were

ground and sieved to obtain desired size particles of cocoa
powder
Effects of processing steps on cocoa
Processing step Observations
Fermentation Separates the flesh from the beans
effectively
Kill the germination capacity of the
seed to make them storable
Development of brown color of the
beans

Drying Polyphenol oxidase was completely

inactivated
After drying the level of phenolic
compounds decreased by 32%
compared to the fermented beans
Freeze drying retained the highest total
polyphenol content as compared to hot
air and sun drying

Cloke et al., 2009

Cont..
Processing step Observations

Alkalization Total polyphenols and antioxidant

capacity decreased with increasing pH
values of cocoa powder
Resulted in 60% loss in total flavonoid
Content
Among flavanols, (-)-epicatechin
showed the largest decline (67%) than
(+)-catechin (38%)

Roasting High processing temperatures or longer

processing time reduce the amount of
cocoa polyphenols
Significant reduction (p<0.05) from
157 mg tannic acid/g (before roasting)
to 131 mg tannic acid/g (after roasting)
Removal of water from the beans

Cloke et al., 2009

 Dutch-processed cocoa
Dutch-processed cocoa, also known as alkalized cocoa or
European-style cocoa, is processed with an alkali to neutralize the
natural acidity of cocoa powder.
Once alkalized, the cocoa's pH is increased from 5.5 to
between 7 and 8, which mellows the flavour.
Dutch-processed cocoa is darker in colour than regular cocoa
powder, and its flavour is smoother.
Regular cocoa powder, called natural, is reddish brown, with a
fruity, robust flavour.
Most of the cocoa butter has been separated from cocoa
powders.
Both these cocoa powders are unsweetened and should not be
confused with hot cocoa mixes.
 Vanilla
The plant Vanilla planifolia is high value spice
crop known for its aroma and flavour in food
industry.

The main constituent of Vanilla planifolia is

vanillin, 4-hydroxy-3-metoxy benzaldehyde
which constitutes 85 per cent of the entire volatiles
in Vanilla beans.

The vanillin has been used as a flavoring agent in

most of the pharmaceutical preparations.

At present about 97% of vanillin sold in the market

comes mainly from the synthetic sources using
coniferin, eugenol, safrole, guaiacol and lignin
Cont..
Volatile constituents that are responsible for the
aroma and flavor of vanilla are acids, ethers, alcohols,
acetals, heterocyclics, phenolics, hydrocarbons, esters
and carbonyls.

Various non-volatile constituents that impart the

characteristic flavor to vanilla include tannins,
polyphenols, free amino acids and resins.

An extract containing large amounts of resins will

retain aromatic compounds far longer than one that
has smaller quantity of them.
Sinha et al.,
Structures of some of the important constituents of
Vanilla planifolia

Nayeem,
2013
Chemical identity and physico-chemical properties of
vanillin

Sinha et al.,
 Commercial extraction of natural vanilla flavor
Commercial vanilla extraction may fall under two categories: the percolation
method and the oleoresin method.

The percolation method consists of a circulating mixture of ethanol and water

containing 35-50% alcohol for 48-72 h, which results in a four-fold strength
vanilla extract.

The oleoresin method consists of pulverizing whole pods and then circulating
ethanol over the pods under vacuum at about 45 0C. The excess ethanol is
removed by evaporation. This process takes about 8-9 days. Using the oleoresin
process, approximately 10-fold strength vanilla extract can be prepared.

The color of vanilla extract is influenced by the quality of vanilla pods, the
strength of alcoholic menstrum, the duration of extraction, and the presence of
glycerin that is added to retard the evaporation and to retain the flavor in the
extract.
 Supercritical fluid extraction
Due to the low viscosity and relatively high diffusivity, supercritical fluids can
penetrate through porous solid material more effectively than liquid solvents
and the outcome of which is high extraction yields.

CO2 is one of the most commonly used extracting agents because of its low
cost, little toxicity, and favorable critical parameters (Tc 31.18C, Pc 74.8 atm).

SCFE has been applied successfully for the extraction of vanillin using
supercritical CO2 as an extraction solvent. Extraction conditions varied from
35 MPa pressure at 450C for 150 min to 350 bar at 450 C for 140 min yielding
20.05 mg vanillin from 1 g vanilla pods.

Purity of vanillin was found to be higher with SCFE than with conventional
aqueous ethanol extraction
Influence of maturity in quality of cured beans
The highest glucovanillin concentration was found in fully matured beans .
Storing of matured beans for a period of around 3 days before kilning
produced maximum vanillin (2.51 per cent) upon processing.

Effect of moisture on bean quality

According to International Standards Specifications (ISO 5565-1: 1999(E)),
the permissible limit of moisture content in whole beans is up to 38 per cent
and that of vanilla powder are up to 30 and 35 per cent respectively.
vanilla beans with moisture content of 30 per cent at the end of drying phase
for conditioning showed a highest vanillin content of 2.24 per cent.
beans with high moisture content (50-54 per cent) tended to have slightly
fermented aroma and were less suave than those conditioned at low moisture
levels.
Prolonged drying of vanilla beans below 25 to 30 per cent moisture
produced cured beans of poor vanillin content, loss of flavour volatiles and
less suppleness.

Kumar & Balamohan, 2013

 Uses of Vanilla
Used in the treatment of dysmenorrhea, fever,
hysteria and dyspepsia.
Prevents dental caries, alleviates tooth ache and
ulcers.
It has antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory and analgesic
activity.
Vanillin is used extensively as flavoring agent in
food, beverage, perfumery and pharmaceutical
industries

Nayeem, 2013
 Refrences:
Chaturvedula, V. & Prakash, I. (2011) The aroma, taste, color and bioactive
constituents of tea. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 5(11), 2110- 2124.

Hii1, C.L., Law, C.L., Suzannah, S., Misnawi & Cloke, M. (2009) Polyphenols in
cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.). Asian Journal of Food and Agro-Industry. 2(04),
702-722.

Joel1, N., Pius, B., Deborah, A. & Chris, U. (2013) Production and quality
Evaluation of cocoa products (plain cocoa powder and chocolate).American
Journal Of Food And Nutrition, 3(1), 31-38.

Menon, S. & Nayeem, N. (2013) Vanilla Planifolia: a review of a plant

commonly used as flavouring agent. International Journal of Sciences
Review and Research. 42, 225-228.

Yashin, A., Nemzer, B.V., Combet, E. & Yashin, Y.I. (2015) Determination of
the Chemical Composition of Tea by Chromatographic Methods. Journal of
Food Research, Vol. 4(3), 56-88.