The words on the page are only half the story, says Toni

Morrison.
The rest is what you bring to the party.

Reinventing Readers
Bibliography
1
Eve Elden
February 25, 2016
Statement of purpose
If students can never outwrite their reading ability (Smith, p. 670) we
need create a system to change this.

Since there is a tendency to focus on how others use literacy, which is

similar to how dominant speakers in power perceive others as using a
different dialect (Kucer 2005) students need to be at the center of this
system where the knowledge they bring is validated and they are
empowered. Working with difference and otherness while analyzing power
structures is necessary to combat cultural hegemony (Miller 1993, Scholes
2002). We can do this through connecting and developing literacies for
the world around us (Williams 2008; Scholes, 2002).

This purpose of this project is to open a discussion on evolving the writing

across the curriculum initiative to one that more explicitly includes
reading. We need a renewed focus on reading which has somehow
disappeared (Scholes 2002). Reading across the disciplines will provide
opportunities for critical, creative, and reflective reading. This will give
students many opportunities to engage in discussions about reading and
how to approach it in different discourse communities. The goal of creating
a cross-discipline ecosystem of interconnected reading is to empower
students with ways to revise their reading and re-envision and reposition
themselves as resilient readers in academics and the world.

At Mid Michigan Community College around 75% of students test into

remedial classes. In terms of completion, about 9% complete a degree
within 3 years (S. Mertes, personal communication). The Mid Michigan
Community faculty and retention committees are the primary audiences
for this project. This bibliography will be the reference material for my
portion of an interdisciplinary panel discussion on reading at the March 29,
2017 Faculty In-Service.

2
The focus of this project is reading but writing theory is woven in because of
inability to separate them. This constraint also causes shifts in language and
terms. The terms literacy, critical literacy and critical reading appear in
conversations on student reading and rather than try to define each as
separate entities, which would be impossible, the terms are used as the
authors use them. Many authors speak to more than one of sub-topicsnot
surprisingly. This offered a thorny challenge in regard to my overall focus and
in categorizing authors for the audience.

Sources are grouped into the following categories:

Acts of reading and literacy

Acts of thinking

Social practices

Identity and self-perceptions

Across the disciplines

Acts of reading and literacy

Since college writing assignments and exams are based on reading, the
inability to interpret texts can be a hindrance to learning and barrier to
student success. Weakness in reading also appears when students reread
their own texts, hindering successful revision (Smith 2010, Morrow 1997).

Frankel, K. K., Becker, B. C., Rowe, M. W., & Pearson, P. D. (2016). From "What
is Reading?" to What is Literacy? Journal Of Education, 196(3), 7-17.

In this update on the 1985 report Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Report
of the Commission on Reading Frankel et al. (2016) argue for shifting from
the term reading to literacy which they define as the process of using
reading, writing, and oral language to extract, construct, integrate, and
critique meaning through interaction and involvement with multimodal texts
in the context of socially situated practices. Literacy is inextricable from the
social, cultural and personal histories of readers. The included studies that
validate positive results for integrating literacy practices into social
3
study/history and science as well as empirical support for dialogic and social
literacy practices.
Acts of reading and literacy continued...

Morrow, N. (1997). The role of reading in the composition classroom. JAC,

17(3), 453472.

Nancy Morrow problematized the idea that students are unaware of their
experience of reading as actively creating meaning rather than just receiving
information. Students need to be more aware of their experience of reading
and responding and rethink the idea that chaos is a problem to be corrected
rather than an opportunity. She defined critical readers as those who know
how to engage any text in conversation by asking questions, which takes
knowing what to questions ask and knowing why they are fruitful and
appropriate.

Salvatori, M. (1996). Conversations with texts: Reading in the teaching of

composition" College English 58(4) 440-454

Mariolina Salvatori emphasized that reading and writing are interconnected

and pointed out the responsibilities of readers and writers in creating
meaning. Her recommendation is to work through difficulty in reading by
writing about it in a Difficulty Paper. Salvatori believes critical reading gives
readers the responsibility to give a voice and life to a texts argument. The
corollary, the writers responsibility requires writing a text that asks (not
answers) questions, that proposes, (not imposes), making dialogue possible.

Salvatori, M. R., & Donahue, P. (2012). What Is college English? Stories about
reading: Appearance, disappearance, morphing, and revival. College English,
75(2), 199-217.

Mariolina Salvatori and Patricia Donahue studied the history of reading

programs and reading definitions in composition. They determined that the
differing purposes for reading within English programs and across disciplines
can be productive opportunities for working together. They raised questions
about changing populations and the possibly that composition studies has
failed to take advantage of writing as a representation of thinking. Salvatori
and Donahue also shared their positions about how readers read differently
depending on their positionand the importance of listening to, dialoguing
4
with and learning from students.
Acts of reading and literacy continued...

Scholes, R. (2002). The Transition to College Reading. Pedagogy, 2(2), 165.

Scholes critiqued college and secondary level English departments for

allowing the reciprocal nature of reading and writing to disappear. Writing
continued to be taught because we can see writing and what we see is not
good. We cannot see reading and he said with certainty that if we could, we
would be appalled. The problem he identified with students is difference or
otherness. The difficulty is in imagining others and the idea that words
express a reader's thoughts. The response of shouting louder and suppressing
those who differ is not acceptable. We need to remain open and bring
criticism out into the open so every student can be a critical reader.

Acts of thinking

Acquiring knowledge requires reflection, metacognition and awareness.

Struggling writers may not acquire knowledge across all levels and disciplines
if they are unable adjust habits of mind to achieve the reading and thinking
that college demands of them (Smith 2010; Barnett, et al., 2012). Students
need to be more aware of their reading experience (Brown, 2003; Barnett, et
al., 2012). Mindful reading is more inclusive of multiple approaches which
develops knowledge in each approach and aids in moving among approaches
and transfer to reading in other disciplines (Carrillo 2016; Brown, 2003). A
range of reading practices can help students reflect on how they read,
develop metacognition and promote consciousness of how
discourse/Discourses work (Gee 2001).

Barnett, T., Douglas, K., & Kennedy, R. (2012, April). The Reading Resilience
Toolkit: Developing a skillsbased approach to reading in higher education. In
The Australian National University Centre of Higher Education, Learning &
Teaching. Retrieved February 10, 2017, from
http://chelt.anu.edu.au/readingresilience

Barnett et al. created a toolkit of strategies to promote the reading

resilience needed to develop confidence and advanced reading skills. They
offered analytical techniques, strategies, and materials for developing and
measuring reading tasks such as reading guides, rubrics and reflective 5
assessments. Barnett et al. (2012) acknowledged the changing climate in
Barnett et al.continued...

varied cohorts of students) and the connection to the completion and

misunderstandings of reading (p. 10). They believe their approach has
applicability across disciplines in education and in business, government and
politics.

Carillo, E. (2016). Creating Mindful Readers in First-Year Composition Courses:

A Strategy to Facilitate Transfer. Pedagogy, 16(1), 9-22.

Ellen Carillo argued for the importance of teaching reading in composition

courses through a metacognitive framework of mindful reading. This
framework encourages students to actively reflect on how they read and gain
knowledge. The focus is on rhetorical reading strategies and critical reading
using metacognition. Through mindful reading students will develop
metacognitive skills engaging them to work with multiple approaches in
multiple reading situations and disciplines. This will lead to success engaging
with the complex texts they will encounter throughout their postsecondary
academic careers and beyond.

Gee, J. P. (2001). Reading as situated language: A sociocognitive perspective.

Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 44(8), 71472S.

James Gee integrated aspects of cognition, language, social interaction,

society and culture to argue for a broader perspective on reading which is
needed to strive for equity and in school and work. He believes reading
instruction needs to be rooted in engagement and interactions with materials
and social worlds. This takes little d discourse, the language being used,
and big D Discourses, ways of talking, listening, writing, reading, acting,
interacting, believing, valuing, and feeling (Gee, 2001, p. 719). Discourse can
be thought of as identity kits that are acquired through socialization and
immersion into social practices. He promotes consciousness of how the
D/Discourses work, since Discourse cannot be taught. Instead it needs to be
acquired.

Smith, C. (2010). "Diving in deeper": Bringing basic writers' thinking to the

surface. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 53(8), 668-676. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org.cmich.idm.oclc.org/stable/25653927 6

Cheryl Smith unpacked her idea about the paradox of basic writers: They are
Smith continued...
focus on performance goals, leads to defeat. Smith promoted helping students
to understand how their own thinking is connected to their literacy. The best
way to do this is to teach them about metacognition during revision and to be
others for their own texts.

Social practices

Social practices in classrooms can be instrumental in the evolution of

students, moving them from being assignment fulfillers to readers and writers
that are empowered academic engagers who challenge power structures
(Miller, 1993). Dialogic practices allow students to hear themselves discuss
shared problems, try on ideas, and assess old ideas then come to some
resolution (Carter, 2006; Miller 1993). Acts of literacy are not private; they are
social (Kucer, 2005). New literacies will require new types of engagements
and relations to audiences (Lunsford & Ede, 2014).

Carter, S. (2006). Redefining Literacy as a Social Practice. Journal of Basic

Writing (CUNY), 25(2), 94-125.

Shannon Carter considers literacy to be a social practice which is not

autonomous and not a bundle of technical and neutral skills. Here she
revealed her view of rhetorical dexterity as the ability to effectively read,
understand, manipulate, and negotiate the cultural and linguistic codes of a
new community of practice (the academy) based on a reality accurate
assessment of another, more familiar one (Carter, 2006, p. 99). She
encouraged risk taking and awareness of how the autonomous model does
not apply to real-life literacy contexts. Educators need to assist students in
developing the tools they need to experience secondary literacies in ways
that analyze the interrelatedness of literacy, power and language.

Kucer, S. (2005). Understanding Literacy as Social Practices. Dimensions of

Literacy: A Conceptual Base for Teaching Reading and Writing in School
Settings (2nd ed.). N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

With cognitive and linguistic aspects of literacy in mind, Kucer explored the
7
sociocultural perspectives on literacy. Individual readers and writers as text-
users, within groups, both in and out of school are his focus. He analyzed the
Social practices continued...

Kucer continued...
practices and expressions of groups, as well as the rules for interaction. He
warned against stereotyping and advocated for sensitivity towards varied
student backgrounds and ways of knowing. He promoted understanding the
nature of social identity and the many avenues to multiple literacies.

Lunsford, A. A., & Ede, L. (2014). Among the audience: On audience in an age
of new literacies. In S. Lee & R. Carpenter (Eds.), The Routledge Reader on
Writing Centers and New Media. (pp. 194-209). New York: Routledge.

Andrea Lunsford and Lisa Ede examined what it means to be a writer in the
twenty-first century because of opportunities with new media and the deeply
participatory nature of these media. They suggested that new literacies will
require new mindsets and extended collaborations. In these new contexts,
writers will rarely write alone. Lunsford and Ede redefined the relationship
between writer, message and medium (or media) as one filled with reciprocity.
This challenges the relationship between "creators" of messages and those
who receive them.

Miller, T. (1993). Teaching the Histories of Rhetoric as a Social Praxis. Rhetoric

Review, 12(1), 70-82. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org.cmich.idm.oclc.org/stable/465991

Thomas Miller advocated for teaching rhetoric as a social praxis as a way to

move beyond writing in the disciplines. He strives to teach students how to go
beyond just reading the established traditions and revising accepted histories.
He believes a self-reflexive rhetorical perspective, focused on shared problems
and students own historical positions, could help students examine the
dominant discourses. He relied on Freire's mission of using literacy for social
action and self-reflection

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Identity and self-perceptions

Repeated failure in reading and writing performances can negatively affects

students self-efficacy. Because of their reading history students have images
of themselves and what it means to be readers that can limit them
(Bartholomae, 1986; Bartholomae and Petrosky, 1986; Frankel et al., 2016).
Unsuccessful readers internalize the lack of success rather than realize
difficulty is a given in academic reading (Bartholomae & Petrosky, 1986;
Salvatori, 1997; Morrow, 1997). Students who are not resilient can become
fearful and give up (Smith 671).

Bartholomae, D. (1986). INVENTING THE UNIVERSITY. Journal of Basic Writing,

5(1), 4-23. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org.cmich.idm.oclc.org/stable/43443456

David Bartholomae (1986) discussed challenges students face with

specialized discourse and taking on the role of privilege while using their
inherited language. In order to appropriate the discourse, rather than be
appropriated by it, students have to invent the university. They do this "by
assembling and mimicking it language in order to balance personal
idiosyncrasies, conventions, and personal and disciplinary history (p. 5).

Bartholomae, D. & Petrosky, A. Selections from Facts, Artifacts, and

Counterfacts. Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook, 1986.

According to Bartholomae and Petrosky basic readers are students who are
bound by the model of reading they carry to the act of reading (1986, p.
18). The models they create of writers and readers limits them. Basic readers
think that difficulty with reading is because of their problem with reading, not
that difficulty is a given in adult reading. Bartholomae and Petrosky advocated
for students because they believe they can learn to transform materials,
structures and situations that seem fixed or inevitable though reflection and
dialogue and that they can establish a place for themselves (1986, p. 41).

9
Identity and self-perceptions continued

Newkirk, T. (2014). Reading as Wedding Crashing. Educational Leadership,

71(4), 44-48.

Thomas Newkirk gave reasons that students find texts difficult to understand
related to unfamiliarity: the genre, conventions, vocabulary, and the issues
addressed. When students are not the target audience and are unprepared for
the length and challenges they face, they struggle rhetorically. Grappling with
difficult texts makes student feel left out, so he suggested they bluff and
pretend in order to find their way into the conversation.

Williams, B. (2008). "Tomorrow will not be like today": Literacy and identity in
a world of multiliteracies. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 51(8), 682-
686. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.cmich.idm.oclc.org/stable/40012405.

Bronwyn Williams understands that students are experienced in negotiating

identities through their online experiences where they are learning through
acquisition. He thinks we can take that knowledge and build on it to teach
both traditional practices of reading and writing and new literacy practices.
Williams advocated for using literacy to challenge dominant power structures
through reflection on identity and power. This applies to both teachers and
students.

10
Across the disciplines

As in writing, reading in the disciplines requires an understanding of

specialized use of discourse. If reading and writing are compartmentalized by
discipline, discourse will remain specialized and readers will be isolated
(Ruskiewicz, 1982; Wilson et al., 2004). Reading across disciplines will build
relationships and connect ideas and leading to deeper knowledge and student
success (Anderson & Kim, 2011).

Anderson, T., Kim, J. Y. (2011). Strengthening college students' success

through the RAC. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 42(1), 61-78.

Trela Anderson and Ji Kim assessed Fayetteville State University's Reading

Across the Curriculum (RAC) model, instituted to train faculty from various
disciplines to create more reading comprehension-centered courses. The
underlying assumptions was that all students need to be able to understand
word problems, comprehend difficult texts and communicate ideas as a way
to lead fulfilled and productive lives. The RAC model was developed to
improve students literacy and academic language skills. This study
demonstrated that the RAC Faculty Course Revision Project resulted in
significant improvement in students' performance outcomes. Pretest and
posttest data showed significant improvement in reading comprehension and
faculty observed increases in students confidence and enthusiasm in regards
to reading.

Ruszkiewicz, J. J. (1982, November). Writing "In" and "Across" the disciplines:

The historical background. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
National Council of Teachers of English (72nd, Washington DC, November 19-
24, 1982)., 1-10.

Ruszkiewicz worked to address a division in the teaching of literacy that has

persisted since classical times (p. 3). He cited Aristotle who believed in the
interconnectedness of knowing and knowledge to show that Rhetoric is the
counterpart of dialectic (as cited in Ruszkiewicz, pp. 6-7). Dialectic and
rhetoric could work to inform and nourish one another across the
curriculum.
11
Across the disciplines continued...

Wilson, K., Devereux, L., Macken-Horarik, M., & Trimingham-Jack, C.

(2004). Reading readings: How students learn to (dis)engage with critical
reading.

Wilson et al. contend that critical reading: the ability to learn from texts,
to think analytically and critically and to develop an ethical and reasoned
position is the what is needed to turn knowledge into wisdom. They
warned against assuming that students will acquire the ability to read
critically without active intervention from their teachers, explicit
instruction to promote metacognitive awareness, and engaged dialogue
with texts. This entails both listening to the voices of the text and
responding to them and discussion with others. Wilson et al. (2004)
believe reading practices cannot be isolated incidents, instead they
should be integrated into the fabric of the subject.

Conclusion:

Students who are underprepared for college-level reading and writing

likened to gate crashers who are not college ready (Smith, 2010),
wedding crashers (Newkirk, 2014) who are not thriving. We need
interconnected approaches to help them thrive and read in new ways.
Literacy learning is not an autonomous act. Using social learning
practices can promote reflection, engagement and discourse to transform
student reading habit and habits of mind about themselves as readers. As
we work with students prior knowledge we can help invent the university
(Bartholomae, 1986) and develop resiliency (Barnett et al., 2012). By
working across the disciplines, as we listen to students and each other
and make reading practices visible, we can reinvent readers. Since I am
not an expert in how others read in their disciplines, the hope is that
these relevant and applicable reading ideas will be considered and
adapted as we create ecosystems that nurture student literacy and
success.

enjoy the
party! 12