STORAGE AND MEMORY

DEVICES
BIF 506
 Data and instructions from secondary storage
devices are transferred to main memory and cache
memory in small measures for the CPU to access
them for processing

Magnetic core technology and semiconductor

technology have been used to make the main memory
of a computer system.

The main memory of a computer is measured in

terms of two characteristics viz., capacity and speed
of access
 The main memory is made up of memory cells (can
store one bit of data)
Memory consists electronic components called
semiconductor chips.
Each chip contains several hundred thousand
transistors; each transistor represents the binary state
of a bit; on or off.
Since a bit can store only one value either l' or 0, the
bits are grouped into sets of eight bits called bytes.
One byte can store one character of data.

Memory locations are numbered 0,1,2,3, ... ; the unique

number assigned to each location is called its address
DATA REPRESENTATION
Binary digits (bits)

A series of eight bits is called a byte

Kilobyte(KB or K)
Gigabyte (GB)
Terabyte (TB)

ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange 4
 Thecomputer memoryis atemporarystoragearea.
It holds thedataand instructions that the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) needs. Before aprogramcan be
run, the program isloadedfrom somestorage
mediuminto the memory. This allows the CPU direct
access to the program. Memory is a need for
anycomputer.
RAM
ROM
RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)
The word Random means that the computer can access any memory
cell without accessing all cells sequentially.

RAM is volatile; that is, it loses its contents if the device is

electrically disconnected.
Contents of the memory remain there as long as electrical current is
available to sustain the memory's pattern of positive and negative charges
which represent the two bits 1 and O.

RAM describes the way computers store and retrieve data and
instructions from memory.

Processor has direct access to each memory cell. Once the address of
the location is given the processor can write one character in that
location or read one out from it into memory from that location
without reference to other cells in the memory.
TYPES OF RAM

DRM
SDRAM

Static RAM

Video RAM

Flash RAM.
DYNAMIC RANDOM ACCESS
MEMORY (DRAM)
It is one of the least expensive RAMs. But it requires frequent
power refreshing to retain memory contents.

SDRAM (SYNCHRONOUS DYNAMIC

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)
DRAM that are synchronised with the clock speed of the processor.
Speed of SDRAM is measured in terms of Megahertz.
If the speed of the SDRAM and processor is optimised, the
processor can improve its performance.
STATIC RAM

Static RAM does not need frequent power refreshing

as is required for DRAM.
Much faster than DRAM. But, it is more expensive
than DRAM.

VIDEO RAM
It is used to store data for the video display monitor.
It is actually a buffer between the processor and the
monitor.
FLASH RAM
Flash RAM or flash memory is a non-volatile memory.
It can be erased and reprogrammed. It is used in PC
cards of notebook computers, digital camera, cell
phones, embedded controllers etc.
ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)
Uses Metal oxide Semiconductor Technology.
ROM is used to store system instructions which are
relatively permanent in nature.
Contents of some memory chips cannot be modified or
rewritten.
Used to store programs that are essential for the proper
operations of computer system. ROM is non-volatile.
Many computers especially microcomputers come
equipped with ROM chips that contain the operating
system and application programs.
Programs stored in ROM chips are often called firmware;
that is, software built into the hardware
 PROM
Programmable read-only memory can be programmed once.
Special circuitry is used for programming it. Once
programmed, this becomes read-only memory (ROM).

EPROM
Erasable programmable read-only memory can be erased
repeatedly and reprogrammed by the user. Erasing is done
by exposing EPROM to ultraviolet light of a specific
frequency.
Reprogramming requires special EPROM Programmer kit.

EEPROM
Electricallyerasable programmable read-only-memory can
be erased electrically and reprogrammed repeatedly.
CACHE MEMORY
Stores data and instructions currently required for processing.
It improves the memory transfer rates and thus raises the

effective processor speed.

CPU searches cache before it searches main memory for data

and instructions.
Cache is physically located close to the CPU and hence access

to cache is faster than to any other memory.

Often used instructions are kept in this cache to speed up the

fetching of instructions. Some processors use the cache as a

work area also for temporary storage of intermediate results.
INTERNAL PROCESSOR MEMORY

Made up of a number of registers used for temporary

storage during processing.
Register is a special storage unit. A typical computer

has ten to twenty registers that are located in ALU

and CU.
Hold data, instructions and memory addresses.

Volatile and are designed to improve the efficiency of

CPU.
REGISTERS
Special memory units used to speed up the rate of
information transfer between various units of the computer.
Not treated as part of main memory and are used to retain

information on a temporary basis.

Can receive information, retain it temporarily and pass it on

as directed by the control unit.

The length of a register depends on the number of bits it can

store. Thus a register which can store 16 bits is normally
referred to as 16-bit register.

Some registers are common to all computers such as

instruction register, program counter register, etc.
TYPES OF REGISTERS
Memory address register This holds the address of the active
memory location. When an instruction is read from memory, the
address is loaded from the program into this register.

Memory buffer register It holds the contents of the memory

word read from or written in memory. A word to be stored in
memory location must first be transferred to this register from
where it is written in memory.

Program counter register It holds the address of the next

instruction to be executed by the computer.
 Accumulator register It holds the initial data to be
operated upon, the intermediate results and also the final
results of processing operations.

Instruction register It holds the current instruction

that is being executed.

Input - output register This holds all input information

to be passed to the memory and also the output
information to be transferred to an output device.
 Computer storage or memory can be of two types:

Primary Storage
Provides very fast access and is used for storing frequently used
programs and data
Expensive and volatile

Used for storing data and instructions mostly temporarily

Secondary Storage
Large files and databases are stored on secondary storage devices
(larger storage capacity and is cheaper than primary storage).
Data and instructions from the secondary storage are moved into

the primary memory for the CPU to access them

Supplementary to primary storage. Also known as auxiliary storage

Access to secondary storage is slower than that to primary storage

Holds data and programs not currently in use

 Secondary storage devices can be

Serial Access Devices

Magnetic tape is a serial access device
Retrieving a data element from a storage location requires going

through the earlier records right from the beginning of the file

Direct Access Devices

Magnetic disk, optical disk and floppy diskettes are direct access
storage devices (DASD).
Direct access storage device stores each data element in a storage

location with a specific storage address that can be individually

accessed without referring to other data elements in storage.

The popular secondary storage devices are magnetic

disk, magnetic tape and CD-ROM.
MAGNETIC DISKS
Magnetic disks are made of rigid metals or synthetic
plastic material.
The disk platter is coated on both the surfaces with
magnetic material and both the surfaces can be used
for storage.
The magnetic disk provides direct access and is
popular for both small and large computer systems.

The magnetic disk comes in two forms:

Hard disks and Floppy disks
HARD DISKS
Hard disk is a metal platter with magnetic coating on both sides.
Several such hard disks are stacked one on the other, without touching
each other, into a disk pack for large storage.

The disk pack, housed in metal container with a read/write head

assembly unit, is fixed inside a computer permanently.

The disk drive has a head assembly with a read/write arm for each pair
of recording surfaces. Each disk has two surfaces for storage.

The disk drive mechanism rotates the disk pack at a constant speed.
Each read/write arm has one pair of read/write head, one for each
surface. To increase the speed of access, the read/write arm carries as
many heads as the number of tracks on the disk.

The access time is determined by two factors: the seek time and the
rotational delay.
Vertical Cross Section of Hard Disk and Arm Assembly
 Advantages of Hard Disks
They support direct access.
They have quick access rates.
They have fairly large storage capacities.
Hard disks are essential for online systems.

Disadvantages of Hard Disks

Hard disks are expensive.
Hard disks are not always reliable. For example, hard disks
can crash. If they crash, the entire data on them may be
lost as data recovery is difficult and expensive.
Speed and performance of hard disks are slower than that
of CPU. Hence, they slow down overall speed of
performance of the computer
FLOPPY DISKETTES
These diskettes, made of synthetic plastic material, are
flexible. Floppies are cheaper and more rugged than metal
disks.
The floppies were introduced in the early 1970s and became
very popular with the arrival of microcomputers. The floppies
are popularly used on microcomputers.
They were available in many sizes like 5 1.4 -inches and 3 Yz
-inches and vary in storage capacity from 360 KB to 2.88 MB.
MAGNETIC TAPE

Conventional magnetic tape is in reels of up to 3600 feet made of

mylar plastic tape; the tape is one half inch in width and is coated
with magnetic material on one side.

The reel of tape is loaded on a magnetic tape drive unit. During any
read/write operation, the tape is moved from one spool to the other in
the same way as in the audiocassette tape recorder.

The magnetic tape is densely packed with magnetic spots in frames

across its width.

A frame records one byte and each bit in the frame is read/ written by
a read/write head for that bit position. The tape has nine tracks, out
of which eight are used as data tracks and the ninth one for parity
bit meant for error detection
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MAGNETIC
TAPES AND MAGNETIC DISKS
Magnetic tape supports only serial access. Magnetic disk permits serial
and random access.
Magnetic tape has much larger storage capacity than a magnetic disk.
Magnetic tape is divided length wise into tracks and data are recorded
in tracks. In case of disk it is divided into circular tracks and sectors.
Data are recorded in one sector fully before moving into the next.
Magnetic tape takes much more processing time than magnetic disk, as
the access is serial.
Accessing and updating of on-line disk files are much faster than tape
files.
A number of disk files affected by a single transaction can be updated
simultaneously whereas tape files have to be updated separately.
Disk file updating process rewrites the old records, and data files have to
be backed up for security.
STORAGE MEDIA
Optical storage technology uses light as the medium for
representing data. Laser beams are used to store and
retrieve data
Optical storage device
CD
DVD
CD-R
CD-RW
CD-ROM

31
CD-ROM (COMPACT-DISK READ-ONLY MEMORY)

This disk is made of synthetic resin that is coated with a

reflective material, usually aluminium. When high intensity
laser beam is focussed on the disk, it forms tiny pits on it

The pit reflects less intense light. The reflected light is sensed to
know the bit 0 from 1; the light will be more intense in the case
of the former as there is no pit.

Well suited for storing relatively static data.

CD-R
This is Compact Disk -Recordable. It can be used to
write data on it once. The data on it can be retrieved as
and when needed.

CD-RW

Compact Disk Re-writable (CD-RW) is an optical disk

that can be rewritten many times.
Data stored on it can be read, erased and re-written as

frequently as needed.
DVD
Digital Versatile Disk (earlier known as Digital Video
Disk.) is a large capacity secondary storage device.
Stores seven times CD capacity on a single side.
Double-sided or dual layer DVDs are also available with
much larger storage capacity.
With such huge storage capacity, DVDs are used to

store full-length commercial motion pictures, video

albums etc.
Viewing quality is much better than tape storage. DVD
system delivers a picture with over twice the definition
of traditional storage like Video Home System(VHS)
COMPUTER OUTPUT MICROFILM AND
COMPUTER OUTPUT MICROFICHE
These are computer output media that use a film
similar to camera film.

Microfilm consists of long filmstrips that are rolled up.

Microfiche is small rectangles of cut films of size 2 by 4
inches to 4 by 6 inches.

These are compact and cheap storage media. Since they

can store large amount of data and are not in human
readable form, they are generally used for archival
purpose.
VIRTUAL STORAGE
This operating system technique divides the program into
pages or segments and each page or segment is loaded into
memory in turn.
At any given time only the page actually required is read

into the memory from the backing store or secondary

storage.
Another segment is loaded into memory when the program

instructions required are larger then the currently loaded.

Technique treats secondary storage as an extension of the

main memory and parts of a program are swapped in and

out of the main store.
Enables a computer to run a program that is larger than its

available memory size and it gives an illusion to the

programmer or user that the computer possesses practically
unlimited memory.
 Virtual memory, the backing store is made to function
virtually like internal memory through software.

Virtual disk is part of internal memory (RAM).

Using operating system software RAM is divided into

main memory and virtual disk. This speeds up CPU's
access to memory