m
 




   
 
 
 

 
ORIGIN
The original idea of ´Statistics" was the collection of
information about and for the "state". The word
statistics derives directly, not from any classical
Greek or Latin roots, but from the Italian word for
state.

Probability has much longer history. Probability is

derived from the verb to probe meaning to "find out"
what is not too easily accessible or understandable.
The word "proof" has the same origin that provides
necessary details to understand what is claimed to be
true.

http://www.statisticalforecasting.com/origin-statistics-probability.php
ORIGIN
Probability originated from the study of games of
chance and gambling during the 16th century.
Probability theory was a branch of mathematics
studied by Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat in
the seventeenth century. Currently in 21st
century, probabilistic modeling is used to control
the flow of traffic through a highway system, a
telephone interchange, or a computer processor;
find the genetic makeup of individuals or
populations; quality control; insurance;
investment; and other sectors of business and
industry.
http://www.statisticalforecasting.com/origin-statistics-probability.php
TIMELINE
_ 1654 -- Pascal -- mathematics of probability, in
correspondence with Fermat
_ 1662 -- William Petty and John Graunt -- first
demographic studies
_ 1713 -- Jakob Bernoulli -- ë
 

_ 1733 -- DeMoivre -- ë    law of error
(similar to standard deviation)
_ 1763 -- Rev. Bayes -- An essay towards solving a
problem in the   

foundation for "Bayesian statistics"
_ 1805 -- A-M Legendre -- least square method
_ 1809 -- C. F. Gauss -- Õ  
  


TIMELINE
_ 1812 -- P. S. Laplace -- Õ   


  

_ 1834 -- | 
 |
 established
_ 1853 -- Adolphe Quetelet -- organized first
international statistics conference; applied
statistics to biology; described the bell-shaped
curve
_ 1877 -- F. Galton -- regression to the mean
_ 1888 -- F. Galton -- correlation
_ 1889 -- F. Galton -- Ê    
_ 1900 -- Karl Pearson -- chi square; applied
correlation to natural selection
TIMELINE
_ 1904 -- Spearman -- rank (non-parametric)
correlation coefficient
_ 1908 -- "Student" (W. S. Gossett) -- The probable
error of the mean; the t-test
_ 1919 -- R. A. Fisher -- ANOVA; evolutionary
biology
_ 1930's -- Jerzy Neyman and Egon Pearson (son of
Karl Pearson) -- type II errors, power of a test,
confidence intervals
NATURE OF STATISTICS
1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic
features of the data in a study. They provide simple
summaries about the sample and the measures.
Together with simple graphics analysis, they form
the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of
data. With descriptive statistics you are simply
describing what is or what the data shows.

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statdesc.php
NATURE OF STATISTICS
2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
With inferential statistics, you are trying to reach
conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data
alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to
try to infer from the sample data what the
population might think. Or, we use inferential
statistics to make judgments of the probability that
an observed difference between groups is a
dependable one or one that might have happened
by chance in this study.

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statinf.php
BASIC STATISTICAL TERMS

1. POPULATION is the set of all individuals or

entities under consideration or study. It may be
finite or infinite collection of objects, events, or
individuals, with specified class or characteristics
under consideration.

2. VARIABLE is a characteristic of interest

measureable on each and every individual in the
universe (population), denoted by any capital
letter in the English alphabet.
TYPES OF VARIABLE

QUALITATIVE VARIABLE consists of categories or

attributes, which have non-numerical
characteristics.

QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE consists of numbers

representing counts or measurements.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE

DISCRETE QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE results

from either a finite number of possible values or a
countable number of possible values.

CONTINUOUS QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE

results from infinitely many possible values that
can be associated with points on a continuous
scale in such a way that there are no gaps or
interruptions.
BASIC STATISTICAL TERMS

3. SAMPLE is a part of the population or a sub-

collection of elements drawn from a population.

4. PARAMETER is a numerical measurement

describing some characteristic of a population.

5. STATISTIC is a numerical measurement

describing some characteristic of a sample.

6. SURVEY is often conducted to gather opinions or

feedbacks about a variety of topics.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

1. NOMINAL is characterized by data that consist

of names, labels, or categories only. The data
cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme.

2. ORDINAL involves data that may be arranged in

some, but differences between data values either
cannot be determined or are meaningless
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

3. INTERVAL is like ordinal level, with the

additional property that meaningful amounts of
differences between data can be determined.
However, there is no inherent (natural) zero
starting point.

4. RATIO in the interval level modified to include

the inherent zero starting point. For values at this
level, differences and ratios are meaningful.
 
!
 
m !
!

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTION
1. A good question is unbiased.
Do you like classical music?
Do you like boring classical music?
2. A good question must be clear and simply stated.
What is your average grade last semester?
What is your academic performance last semester?
3. Questions must be precise.
Do you think male and female are equal? (Vague
question)
4. Good questionnaires lend themselves to easy
analyses.
TWO CATEGORIES OF SURVEY QUESTIONS

1. OPEN QUESTION ² allows free response

2. CLOSED QUESTION ² allows only fixed

response
TYPES OF DATA

1. PRIMARY DATA are information collected from

an original source of data, which is first-hand in
nature. Examples are data collected from
interviews and surveys.

2. SECONDARY DATA are information collected

from published or unpublished sources like
books, newspapers, and thesis.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

1. Direct or interview method

2. Indirect or questionnaire method

3. Registration method

4. Observation method

5. Experiment method
SAMPLING
Sampling ² is the process of selecting units, like
people, organizations, or objects from a
population of interest in order to study and fairly
generalize the results back to the population from
which the sample was chosen.

1. Probability Sampling ² and method of sampling

that utilizes some form of random selection
a) Simple random sampling ² a group of subjects
is selected for study from a larger group. Each
individual is chosen entirely by chance and
each member of the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample.
b.) Stratified random sampling ² involves
dividing the population into homogenous
subgroups and then taking a simple random
sample in each subgroup. The objective is to
divide the population into non-overlapping
groups
Equal allocation
Proportional allocation

c.) Systematic random sampling ² selects every

kth unit from an ordered population
 d.) Cluster random sampling ² divides the
population into clusters, usually along
geographic boundaries, then randomly taking
samples of clusters and measuring all units
within sampled clusters

2. ) Non-probability Sampling ² doesn·t involve

random selection of samples and therefore
doesn·t represent the population well.

a) Accidental, haphazard or convenience ² is

based primarily on the convenience of the
researcher. Most common examples are
interviews done by television news programs
to get a quick reading of public opinion.
b.) Purposive sampling ² done with a purpose in
mind. Usually, one or more specific predefined
groups are sought. It can be very useful in
situations where a target sample needs to be
reached quickly and where sampling for
proportionality is not the primary concern.

Subcategories of Purposive Sampling:

1.) Modal Instance ² sampling for specific groups
or types of people wherein sampling the most
frequent case or the typical case is sought for.
This method is commonly used in informal public
opinion polls.
2.) Expert Sampling ² involves assembling of a sample
of persons with known or demonstrable experience
and expertise in some area.

3.) Quota Sampling ² respondents are selected non-

randomly according to some fixed quota.

4.) Heterogeneity - is performed when all opinions or

views about a specific topic are the primary concern
and representing these views proportionately is not of
major importance. This is also called diversity.
5.) Snowball Sampling ² starts by identifying someone
who meets the criteria for inclusion in the study. The
respondent is then asked to recommend others whom
they may know who also meet the criteria.
EXERCISES

Identify the type of sampling used in the following

statements.
_______1.) An engineer selects every 50th cell phone
from the assembly line for careful testing and
analysis.
_______2.) A dean at DLSU ² D surveys all students
from each of 12 randomly selected classes.
_______3.) A reporter writes the names of each
senator on a separate card, shuffles the cards,
and then draws five names.
_______4.) A reporter obtains sample data from
readers who decide to mail in a questionnaire
printed in the latest issue.
_______5.) A mathematics professor selects 18 men
and 18 women from each of four classes.

_______6.) In conducting research for a psychology

course, a student of DLSU ² D interviews
students who are leaving the SBC canteen.

_______7.) A reporter obtains numbered listing of

the1000 companies with the highest stock
market values, uses a computer to generate 20
random numbers between 1and 1000, and then
interviews the chief executive officers of the
companies corresponding to these numbers.
_______8.) A medical student at DLSU ² HSC
interviews all diabetic patients in each of 15
randomly selected hospitals in the country.

_______9.) A researcher interviews every 45th

patient in the list of DLS ² UMC in-patients.

_______10.) Ms. Morales wants to give away 3

movie tickets. In order to remove bias, she wrote
the name of each of her students in a paper and
placed it in a hat. To determine the 3 winners,
she picked 3 rolled papers from the hat.
_________11.) To research consumer recognition of
Swerte Ko noodles, the researcher conducts a
survey of 2000 consumers in the Philippines by
interviewing typical class C and D consumers
coming out of the supermarket.

_________12.) A student interviews school

principals and classroom teachers about the
implementation of the 2002 Basic Education
Curriculum.