DEBRE BIRHAN UNIVERSI

COTM

PR .BY:
TEWODROS ZEGEYE

pr.by Tedy Zegye

Topographic surveying and
mapping

Prepared by: Tewodros

Zegeye

pr.by: Teddy Zegye

 Definition and purpose:
INTRODUCTION
Topographic surveying is the process
of determining the positions, on the
earth's surface, of the natural and
artificial features of a given locality,
and of determining the configuration
of the terrain. The location of the
features is known as planimeter and
the configuration of the terrain is
known as topography.
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 The topographic map shows by means of suitable
symbols:The spatial configuration of the earth's surface,
which includes such features as hills and valleys;other
natural features such as
streams ,
oceans,
seas,etc and
man-made features such as
buildings,
roads,
canals,
cultivation, etc.
The principal data required for topographic mapping are
elevation and distance. Several ground methods that
require the use of transit, total station theodolite, plane
table and alidade, level, hand level, tape, leveling rod
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Use of Topographic Maps:
The purpose of Topographic surveying is
to gather data necessary for the
construction of the topographic map that
displays both the planimeter and
topographic features.: -
Industrial Plants
Rail ways & high ways
Irrigation & drainage scheme
Hydroelectric power station
a building complex
Bridges, tunnels and dams
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The user of the map should be able to
interpret the map as a model of the ground.
They are necessary aids in the design of any
engineering project that requires
consideration of landforms, elevations or
gradients.
They also furnish necessary data for
economists, geologists, and others interested
in the general development of natural
resources.
Topographic surveying and the preparation of
a topographic map of the terrain is therefore
generally the first step in the planning and
designing of a major civil engineering project.
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General methods applied to gather
the necessary data for the
preparation of a topographic map .
1.Ground method: is done by means of
total station or theodolite (stadia tacheometre),
as well as with levels, tapes. This method is
economic and suitable for relative small areas.
2.Photogrammetric method:
Aerial photographs: are used to show the
necessary ground data. It is an economic method
for larger areas and projects and it overcomes
the sometimes-difficult access problems to the
area to be mapped. The accuracy of
photogrammetry mainly depends upon the scale
of the aerial photographs.
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The aerial photographs are
measured stereoscopically (three-
dimensionally) by means of a special
instrument called stereoplotter. With
the help of such stereoplotters the
contour lines and positions of all
topographic features can be
determined.
3.Data from satellite : It is done by
capturing land information data from
satellite.
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Total stadia tacheometry procedure in
topographic surveying:
1.Reconnaissance survey
The term reconnaissance means the first
inspection of the target area in terms of existing
control points, possible sites for new observation
stations,With other words, after the first
inspection, one has got some idea (mental map)
about the terrain and the features of the ground.
Gathering information about the existing ground
reference points, benchmarks and their
coordinates and elevations respectively.
Establishing additional horizontal and vertical
control points if the existing control network is
not dense enough. pr.by Tedy Zegye
2. Establishing control
stations
The establishing of horizontal and
vertical control points is the most
essential part and is the first step in the
field work process of topographic
surveying, since the three-dimensional
coordinates (X, Y, Z) of each point to be
surveyed can only be determined with
respect to well established reference
points.
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Types of controls : Horizontal and Vertical
HORIZONTAL CONTROL
Is provided by two or more points on the
ground and precisely fixed in position by
distance and direction.
Is the basis for map scale and locating
topographic features.
For small areas, horizontal control for
topographic work is usually established by a
traverse, but sometimes a single straight line
may be used.
VERTICAL CONTROL
Is provided by bench marks in or near the
tract to be surveyed.
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3. Preparation of base map
In Preparation of base map :
Arrange the paper shape in portrait or
landscape
Determine map area and marginal area
Drawing cardinal direction
Determine scale
Grids drawing and labelling

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Scale of the map: The scale of a map
should be selected according to the purpose
of the map. For the first planning stage of a
civil engineering project (e.g. a big bridge) a
small-scale map might be adequate, but for
detailed planning (e.g. for the wing wall of the
bridge), large-scale maps would be required.
The scale is usually selected before
commencing the fieldwork.
The applied field method should be selected
according to the scale to which the map
would be drawn. An experienced draftsman
usually has a plotting accuracy of about 0.2-
0.3 mm, using a plotting needle and a
magnifying glass. pr.by Tedy Zegye
If the scale is (say) 1:500,
distances in the field should be
measured to the nearest
0.10-.15m, according to the
above-mentioned manual
plotting accuracy of 0.2-0.3 mm.
A scale of 1:2000 therefore
requires a distance accuracy in
the field of 0.4-0.6 m (just
calculate: 0.2 mm x 2000 = 0.4
m). Thus the field methods for
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An example: The westernmost station has an easting of
5800 m and the easternmost station has an easting of
6200 m. The coordinate difference is therefore 6200 m-
5800 m=400 m. If a scale of 1:500 is used, a paper length
of at least 0.8 m (400m *1/500) is needed to
accommodate the drawing in the east-west direction. In
the same manner the needed north-south extension of the
paper is examined. However, one should never select a
too close-fitting paper size, but always select a paper size
that is a bit bigger than the minimum paper size in order
to have more space for the plotting of the surrounding
topographic features and for marginal information. In the
preparation of a topographic map, the first plotting task is
to define accurately the position of the horizontal control
points on the plot. This is best accomplished by preparing
a rectangular grid on the base of the map and plotting
each traverse point by means of the computed
coordinates. The procedure to prepare the rectangular grid
is as follows (see also figure 6):
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4. Stadia tacheometry
DEFINITION OF STADIA
A rapid and efficient method of measuring
distances.
Not accurate for high order surveys, but is
accurate enough for trigonometric
levelling, locating topographic details, and
some traverses.
Stadia readings can be taken with
theodolites, transits, and levels.
THEORY
Stadia works because of the trigonometric
principle of similar triangles.
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PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Stadia lines are etched on the telescope
reticle at a given distance apart.

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The stadia lines on the
telescope reticle correspond
to the focal distance.
This ratio will always be
supplied by the manufacturer
of the equipment.
For most levels, transits, and
theodolites the stadia lines
correspond to one hundredth
(1/100) of the focal distance.
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The horizontal distance between
a and b:
L = 100 x l
The height difference between a
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Preparation of a field book where all measured
features, such as roads, buildings, trees, ditches,
fences, manholes, spot heights etc. are entered.
In the case of stadia tacheometry all relevant
readings, such as horizontal angles, vertical
angles, the three stadia readings, and the
instrument height are booked in a special form.
The distances and elevations are calculated in
the office.
The heights of prominent points of some
elevated features such as mountain summits or
hill tops and the bottom of depressions are called
spot heights. In addition, the characteristic
valley lines and ridge lines, as well as the lines of
steepest slopes have to be surveyed.
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The determination of the location of a
point by measuring the horizontal angle
and the distance from instrument station
to that point is also called radial
positioning.

The principle is very easy and is

illustrated in figu
The illustration below (figure 4) shows an
application of the radial positioning
method:

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 The benchmarks BM 101 and BM 102 are
surveying stations with known three-
dimensional coordinates (Easting,
Northing and Elevation). The instrument is
set up over (say) BM 101 and a
reference direction is measured to
another visible benchmark BM 102.
The reference target is occupied with a
ranging pole standing in a vertical position
exactly over the point. To save manpower
the ranging pole can be supported by a
ranging pole tripod. For setting up the
ranging pole vertically a rod level or a
plumb bob can be used.
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In case of stadia tachometry the following
data are measured and booked:
1.point number of point to be surveyed
2.instrument height (can be determined with a
tape )
3.horizontal angle
4.vertical angle ( most commonly the zenith
angle)
5.upper, middle and lower staff reading
Before leaving now the station BM 101 it is
very important to take a check reading on
BM 102. This assures that during the survey,
done on BM 101, the instrument has not
been disturbed. pr.by Tedy Zegye
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As illustrated in figure 5, the building cannot
fully be seen from any traverse point.
Therefore a new station from where the
building corners (say) 388 and 389 can be
taken has to be established. For a save
determination of the new station the angle
(direction) and distance to the new station
should be measured independently from two
traverse points in order to avoid a possible
faulty determination and to increase the
accuracy. The arithmetic mean of the two
determinations is then calculated and used
for the further survey. The new station is also
marked with a stake, a nail or an iron pipe.
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5. Plotting of the topographic
features:
Plotting: refers to the transfer of survey data to the map.
The plotting of all topographic features, including spot heights,
can be done most easily with the use of a protractor and an
engineer scale. The centre of the protractor is held with a hand
exactly over the observation station.
Then, either the zero degree mark or the known azimuth is lined
up with the respective traverse side in order to orient the
protractor properly. The desired angle or azimuth of the points is
then taken from the field notes and noted along the edge of the
protractor, and fine points are marked at these positions (to
avoid mixing up of points, the point numbers are written next to
the points). With a scale, the distances, also taken from the field
notes, are then set out from the protractor centre (traverse
station) and going through the respective previously marked
points. The end points are marked with a sharp pencil (just a
point with a small circle around), and labeled with their point
numbers and elevations. pr.by Tedy Zegye
 When all points of one station have been
plotted, the protractor is moved to the
next position, and the process continues.
The points are then connected as
illustrated in the field book.

However, a map title with the map scale,

a north arrow and a legend (explanation
of the used symbols) are indispensable
items of each topographic map.

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6. Relief representation
Relief on maps
How to show the ups and down (relief) on a
plane sheet of paper is one of the many
problems that have been facing the
mapmakers throughout the history of map
making. Still the maker cannot ignore the
problem because the relief is one of the
most important properties of the earths
surface, with vital influence upon man and
his activities. It is therefore, very
important that the map should inform us
as accurately as possible about the relief of
an area. pr.by Tedy Zegye
Ways of showing relief
1.Physiographic diagrams- (three
dimensional pictures as seen by the
bserver standing on the ground)
It is a mixture of vertical and side view.
Many details of the hill will be hidden
from the view behind the backs.
No accurate information about the actual
height of different point.
Lack of accuracy
2.Hill shading today used together with
contours.
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3.By hachures: These are short lines
drawn in the direction of the ground
slope. An examples for hachures,
applied in the case of a road cutting
and embankment is illustrated in
figure 1

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altitudes for individual points along
roads, mountaintops etc. There is no
artificial physical evidence in the field
of the presence of such a spot height.
They are marked on the map, usually
with a dot followed a number giving
the accurate altitudes in meters (see
figure 2):

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method of representing relief today.
A contour line is a line that connects
points of equal level on the surface of
the earth. The shoreline of a body of
still water (e.g. a lake) is an excellent
illustration of a contour line. They are
drawn on the two-dimensional paper
to give the impression of a third
dimension.

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The properties of contours (isohypses)
imaginary lines
fixed height interval
known height

Contour interval:
The constant vertical distance (height difference)
between two consecutive contour lines is called the
contour interval.
The contour interval for the example, illustrated in
figure 8 is 1 meter.
The proper choice of the contour interval depends on
the slopes of the terrain to be represented, the scale of
the map and the purpose of the survey. If, for example,
the terrain is very hilly and the contour interval is too
small in relation to the scale, the contour lines become
to crowded. pr.by Tedy Zegye
 Table 1 gives an overview about which
contour interval should be selected for the
different map scales and terrain types:
Scale of the Type of terrain Contour interval
map
large flat 0,2-0,5 m
1:1000 or rolling 0,5-1,0 m
larger hilly 1,5-2,0 m
intermediate flat 0,5-1,5 m
1:1000- rolling 1,0-2,0 m
1:10000 hilly 2,0-3,0 m
small flat 1,0-3,0 m
1:10000 or rolling 2,0-5,0 m
smaller hilly 5,0-10,0 m
mountainouspr.by Tedy Zegye 10, 25 or 50 m
 A rolling terrain has got gently raising and
falling slopes.
Table 2 shows common contour intervals
for different purposes:
Purpose of Map scale Contour interval
survey
building sites 1:1000 or larger 0,2-0,5 m
town planning 1:5000-1:10000 0,5-2,0 m
and reservoir
planning
survey of 1:5000-1:20000 2,0-3,0 m
extensive
area,
earthwork,
etc. pr.by Tedy Zegye
Characteristics of contour
lines:
The contours have the following
characteristics:
1.The contour lines are closed lines.
However, they may close either on the
map itself or outside the map,
depending upon the topography.
2.As the perpendicular distance between
two contour lines is the shortest
distance, contours are always
perpendicular to the direction of the
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 U-formed contour lines

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In case of a valley lines or streams, the
contours run roughly parallel to the
valley line or stream and form 's
pointing uphill where they cross the
valley line or stream.
Higher ground
figure 5 V-formed contour lines

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4.If the spacing between the contour lines
is small the slope is steep, but for gentle
slopes the spacing is large (see also
figure 6).
steep
slope

gentle slope

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5.Contour lines never cross one
another or branch into two contour
lines of the same elevation because a
point on the ground cannot have two
elevations (see also figure 11); they
may overlap and appear to meet only
at vertical walls or cliffs.

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6.Depression contours form closed loop
contours around the lowest point. The
elevations of the contours decrease from
outside to inside.
7.Summit contours form closed loop
contours around the highest point. The
elevations of the contours increase from
outside to inside.
8.Contours do not have sharp turnings.
9.Contours areBuilding
not shown going through
buildings.

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10.Contours crossing a man made
horizontal surface (roads, railway
track) will be straight parallel lines
as they cross the facility.

Road

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Interpolation of contours:
Interpolation refers to the process of determining
intermediate values between two observed data
points. The assumption is made that the ground slope
between two adjacent points is constant (in a straight
line). The interpolation is therefore linear.
Interpolation is necessary because the series of points
observed in the field do not necessarily lie exactly on
the contour lines shown on the map; it is not practical
to locate and measure every point on a round or
whole-number contour.
Two methods are mainly applied for linear interpolation,
namely the mathematical interpolation and the
graphical interpolation.
No matter which method is applied, the linear
interpolation is always done along the direction of
the steepest slope! pr.by Tedy Zegye
Mathematical method: Also
sometimes referred to as calculation
method. The following example shows
the principle:

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Figure 12 illustrates a vertical section through
the ground. Point A and B are observed ground
points with its elevations 125,40 m and 127,70
m respectively. The horizontal distance
between the two points is 24,0 m. Wanted is
the position of the round-number contour
lines 126,0 m and 127,0 m along the line AB:
X1: (126,0-125,4) = 24,0:2,30 X2: (127,0-
125,4) = 24,0:2,30
X1 = 6,26 m X2 = 16,70 m
Therefore, the contour line 126,0 m passes at a
distance of 6,26 m from Point A towards point
B, or 17.74m from point B and the contour line
127,0 m passes at a distance of 16,70 m from
the same point A orpr.by
7.3m from B.
Tedy Zegye
 In the topographic map the two distances
(X1 and X2) are set out with a scale along
the straight line AB, marked with a point
and labeled with its elevations.
The same calculation, carried out in the
reverse direction (from point B to point A)
serves as a check.
The mathematical interpolation is a very
accurate method and shall be applied in
cases where a high accuracy is
demanded. The beginning student may
find it time consuming and tedious, but
with some practice the speed increases.
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 Graphical method: with this interpolation
method the work is done very quickly and
also quite accurate, some practice
provided. A sheet of tracing paper is
needed on which parallel lines are drawn
to represent the desired contour interval.
The distance between two parallel lines
on the tracing paper must be chosen that
way, that the distance, perpendicular to
the parallel lines on the tracing paper, for
the elevation difference between point A
and B is shorter than the distance AB
itself. Figure 13 illustrates the method:
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 The tracing paper is used as follows: Suppose
points A and B are two points with the elevations
125.40 m and 127.70 m respectively, and it is
desired to interpolate the 126m and 127m
contour lines between the two points. The
tracing paper is shifted in such a way, that point
A takes up a value of 125.40 m between the
lines 125.0 and 125.5 on the tracing paper (this
is done by estimation). The point A is then fixed
by means of a needle or pin to the tracing paper.
Now, the tracing paper is rotated around point A
until point B takes up a value of 127.70 m
between the lines 127.5 and 128.0 on the
tracing paper (this is done again by estimation).
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 In this position, the contour lines
126.0 and 127.0 are found at the
intersection of the 126.0 and 127.0
lines on the tracing paper with the
plotted line AB. These points are
fixed by pricking with a needle
trough the tracing paper into the
drawing and the indexes to the
contour is also transformed to the
base of the map.
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Sketching of contour lines:
After locating the points of various contour
lines as described previously, the contours
can be sketched. To see clearly the course
of each contour, the points of same
elevation are joined with straight lines.
Then, the points of same elevation are
connected with a smooth curve. This is best
accomplished by using french curves. It is
positioned on the paper to pass through as
many points as possible and a portion of
the curve is drawn. The french curve is then
repositioned for drawing another portion of
the contour. pr.by Tedy Zegye
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Labelling of contour lines:
Intermediate contour lines are drawn with continuous
lines. The intermediate contour lines depend upon the
character of the terrain. In hilly or mountainous areas,
the contours, divisible by 10, 20, 25, 50 or 100 m are
considered as main contour lines. However, in flat
terrain a main contour line can be divisible by 1, 2 or 5
m. An index contour line is a main contour line that
helps the map user to quickly interpret the height
situation portrayed on the map. It is drawn with a
continuous line of thicker width. Most commonly
every fifth contour line is an index contour. In the
example, illustrated in figure 15, those contours whose
elevations are multiples of 5 m are shown with a
heavier line (120, 125, 130 etc.) and are therefore index
contours. When the contour interval is 10 m, the index
contours have elevations that are multiples of 50 m.
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1.All other contour lines are drawn with a
dashed line of the same width as the
intermediate contour lines. They are
called supplementary contour lines. In flat
terrain the 0.5 or 0.25 m contour lines are
drawn in that manner.
2.A small gap is left for writing the elevation.
3.The elevation of a contour should be so
written that the foot of the text shows
towards the lowest point.
4.The amount and the location of elevation
labels should be so selected, that the map
will have a neat appearance.
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6.Map compilation
Construction of the map frame and
legend is done at the stage of Map
compilation. Map Editing and Map
designing also applied at this stage.
Features are depicted on the map using
various combinations of points, lines and
standard symbols

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 a) Map frame Construction
b) Legend Construction
Topographic mapping is effectively done bY Standard
symbols of colour coded and these Standard symbols on
the map are interpreted in legend.
For instance The result looks very much like a finished
map. usually water features are blue, vegetations are
green and for relief brown.
c) Map designing
Most maps are typically depicted many different types of
detail effectively by the following elements.
Clarity-ability of map readable to the user.
Contrast-use of different line weight.
Order-logically designing order of elements of map.
Balance- weight of elements: size,color,font, position.
Harmony-interrelation between elements of map.

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d)Map editing
After the map manuscript is compiled,
several steps remain before a map is
completed. Working over a light table, the
scriber then uses engraving instruments
to the map's lines and symbols. This is
done by removing the soft coating from
the hard plastic guide sheet. All features
to be plotted in the same color on the
mapsuch as blue for water features
are onto separate sheets. A map is edited
several times before final scribed sheets
are completed. pr.by Tedy Zegye
THE END

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