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What is an Experiment?
Research method in which
conditions are controlled
so that 1 or more independent variables
can be manipulated to test a hypothesis
about a dependent variable.
variable
Allows
evaluation of causal relationships among variables
while all other variables are eliminated or controlled.
Some Definitions
Dependent Variable
Criterion by which the results of the experiment are
judged.
Variable that is expected to be dependent on the
manipulation of the independent variable
Independent Variable
Any variable that can be manipulated, or altered,
independently of any other variable
Hypothesized to be the causal influence
More Definitions
Experimental Treatments
Alternative manipulations of the independent variable
being investigated
Experimental Group
Group of subjects exposed to the experimental
treatment
Control Group
Group of subjects exposed to the control condition
Not exposed to the experimental treatment
More Definitions
Test Unit
Entity whose responses to experimental treatments are being
observed or measured
Randomization
Assignment of subjects and treatments to groups is based on
chance
Provides control by chance
Random assignment allows the assumption that the groups are
identical with respect to all variables except the experimental
treatment
Constant Error (bias)
Constant error is error that occurs in the same
experimental condition every time the basic experiment
is repeated a systematic bias
Example:
Experimental groups always administered the treatment in the
morning
Control groups always in the afternoon
Introduces an uncontrolled extraneous variable time of day
Hence, systematic or constant error
Extraneous Variables
Variables other than the manipulated variables that affect the
results of the experiment
Can potentially invalidate the results
Sources of Constant Error
Demand Characteristics
Experimental design procedures or situational aspects of the
experiment that provide unintentional hints to subjects about
the experimenters hypothesis
If occurs, participants likely to act in a manner consistent with
the experimental treatment.
Most prominent demand characteristic is the person actually
administering the experimental treatments.
Experimenter Bias
Effect on the subjects behavior caused by an experimenters
presence, actions, or comments.
Guinea Pig Effect
Effect on experimental results caused by subjects changing
normal behavior or attitudes to cooperate with experimenter.
Controlling Extraneous Variables
Blinding
Technique used to control subjects knowledge of
whether or not they have been given the experimental
treatment.
Taste tests, placebos (chemically inert pills), etc.
Constancy of Conditions
Subjects in experimental & control groups are
exposed to identical situations except for differing
conditions of the independent variable.
Controlling Extraneous Variables
Order of Presentation
If experimental method requires that the same
subjects be exposed to 2 or more experimental
treatments, error may occur due to order in which the
treatments are presented
Counterbalancing
the subjects exposed to Treatment A first, then to
Treatment B.
Other exposed to Treatment B first, then to Treatment A.
Eliminates the effects of order of presentation
Experimental Validity
Internal Validity
Indicates whether the independent variable was the
sole cause of the change in the dependent variable
External Validity
Indicates the extent to which the results of the
experiment are applicable to the real world
Extraneous Variables that Jeopardize
Internal Validity
History Effect
Specific events in the external environment between
the 1st & 2nd measurements that are beyond the
experimenters control
Common history effect occurs when competitors
change their marketing strategies during a test
marketing experiment
Cohort Effect
Change in the dependent variable that occurs because
members of one experimental group experienced
different historical situations than members of other
experimental groups
Extraneous Variables that Jeopardize
Internal Validity
Maturation Effect
Effect on experimental results caused by
experimental subjects maturing or changing over time
During a daylong experiment, subjects may grow
hungry, tired, or bored
Testing Effect
In before-and-after studies, pretesting may sensitize
subjects when taking a test for the 2nd time.
May cause subjects to act differently than they would
have if no pretest measures were taken
Extraneous Variables that Jeopardize
Internal Validity
Instrumentation Effect
Caused by a change in the wording of questions, in
interviewers, or in other procedures used to measure the
dependent variable.
Selection Effect
Sampling bias that results from differential selection of
respondents for the comparison groups.
Mortality or Sample Attrition
Results from the withdrawal of some subjects from the
experiment before it is completed
Effects randomization
Especially troublesome if some withdraw from one treatment
group and not from the others (or at least at different rates)
Figure 8.3 Experimentation as Conclusive Research
Conclusive
Research
Descriptive
Causal
Experimentation
Field Laboratory
Experiments Experiments
Laboratory Versus Field Experiments
A B C
Extraneous B C A
Variable 1
C A B
< 5 years X1 X2 X3
5 10 years X2 X3 X1
> 10 years X3 X1 X2
Factorial Design
Used to examine the effects that the manipulation
of at least 2 independent variables
(simultaneously at different levels) has upon the
dependent variable
The impact that each independent variable has on
the dependent variable is referred to as the main
effect
Dependent variable may also be impacted by the
interaction of the independent variables. This is
called the interaction effect
Factorial Design Example
Grocery store chain wants to use 12 of its stores to
examine whether sales would change at 3 different hours
of operation and 2 different types of sales promotions
Dependent variable is change in sales
Independent variables
Store open 6 am to 6 pm
Store open 6 am to midnight
Store open 24 hours/day
Sales promotion: samples for a free gift
Sales promotion: food samples
Called a 3 x 2 factorial design
Need 6 experimental groups (3 x 2 = 6)
Factorial Design Example
HOURS OF OPERATION
Gift stamps
Food samples
Test Marketing
Controlled experiment conducted on a small segment of
the target market
Major objectives
Determine how well products will be accepted in the
marketplace
Determine how changes in marketing mix will likely affect
product success
Major reason for test marketing is risk reduction
Lose $ 1 million in test market or $ 50 million on product
failure?
Problems
Expense
Time
Competitors can disrupt
Factors to Consider
Population size
Demographic composition
Lifestyle considerations
Competitive situation
Media coverage & efficiency
Media isolation
Self-contained trading area
Overused test markets
Loss of secrecy