Principles of Development

Developmental Biology

Embryology
Fusion of Pronuclei

Aftersperm and egg membranes fuse,

the sperm loses its flagellum.
Enlarged sperm nucleus is the male
pronucleus and migrates inward to
contact the female pronucleus.
Fusion of male and female pronuclei
forms a diploid zygote nucleus.
Cleavage
Cleavage rapid
cell divisions
following fertilization.
Very little growth
occurs.
Each cell called a
blastomere.
Morula solid ball
of cells. First 5-7
divisions.
Polarity
The eggs and zygotes of many animals (not
mammals) have a definite polarity.
The polarity is defined by the distribution of yolk.
The vegetal pole has the most yolk and the
animal pole has the least.
Amount of Yolk
Different types of animals
have different amounts of
yolk in their eggs.
Isolecithal very little
yolk, even distribution.
Mesolecithal moderate
amount of yolk
concentrated at vegetal
pole.
Telolecithal Lots of yolk
at vegetal pole.
Centrolecithal lots of
yolk, centrally located.
Direct vs. Indirect Development
When lots of nourishing yolk is present, embryos
develop into a miniature adult.
Direct development
When little yolk is present, young develop into larval
stages that can feed.
Indirect development
Mammals have little yolk, but nourish the embryo via the
placenta.
Blastula
A fluid
filled cavity, the blastocoel, forms within
the embryo a hollow ball of cells now called a
blastula.
Gastrulation
The morphogenetic
process called
gastrulation
rearranges the cells of
a blastula into a three-
layered (triploblastic)
embryo, called a
gastrula, that has a
primitive gut.
Diploblastic
organisms have two
germ layers.
Gastrulation
The three tissue layers produced by gastrulation
are called embryonic germ layers.
The ectoderm forms the outer layer of the gastrula.
Outer surfaces, neural tissue
The endoderm lines the embryonic digestive tract.
The mesoderm partly fills the space between the
endoderm and ectoderm.
Muscles, reproductive system
Suites of Developmental Characters

Two major groups of triploblastic animals:

Protostomes
Deuterostomes

Differentiated by:
Spiral vs. radial cleavage
Regulative vs. mosaic cleavage

Blastopore becomes mouth vs. anus

Schizocoelous vs. enterocoelous coelom formation.

Deuterostome Development

Deuterostomes include echinoderms

(sea urchins, sea stars etc) and
chordates.
Radial cleavage
Deuterostome Development
Deuterostome means second mouth.
The blastopore becomes the anus and the
mouth develops as the second opening.
Deuterostome Development

The coelom is a body cavity completely

surrounded by mesoderm.
Mesoderm & coelom form simultaneously.
Inenterocoely, the coelom forms as
outpocketing of the gut.
Protostome Development

Protostomes include flatworms,

annelids and molluscs.
Spiral cleavage
Cell Fate Determination and Pattern
Formation by Inductive Signals
Once embryonic cell division creates
cells that differ from each other,
The cells begin to influence each others
fates by induction.
Spemann-Mangold Experiment
Transplanting a piece
of dorsal blastopore
lip from a salamander
gastrula to a ventral
or lateral position in
another gastrula
developed into a
notochord & somites
and it induced the
host ectoderm to
form a neural tube.
Building a Body Plan

Cell differentiation the specialization

of cells in their structure and function.
Morphogenesis the process by which
an animal takes shape and differentiated
cells end up in their appropriate
locations.
Building a Body Plan
The sequence includes
Cell movement
Changes in adhesion

Cell proliferation

There is no hard-wired master control panel

directing development.
Sequence of local patterns in which one step in
development is a subunit of another.
Each step in the developmental hierarchy is a
necessary preliminary for the next.
Hox Genes
Hox genes control the
subdivision of embryos
into regions of different
developmental fates
along the
anteroposterior axis.
Homologous in diverse
organisms.
These are master genes
that control expression
of subordinate genes.
Formation of the Vertebrate Limb
The wings and legs of chicks, like all
vertebrate limbs begin as bumps of tissue
called limb buds.
The embryonic cells within a limb bud respond
to positional information indicating location
along three axes.
Formation of the Vertebrate Limb
One limb-bud organizer region is the apical
ectodermal ridge (AER).
A thickened area of ectoderm at the tip of the bud.
The second major limb-bud organizer region is
the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA).
A block of mesodermal tissue located underneath
the ectoderm where the posterior side of the bud is
attached to the body.
Morphogenesis

Morphogenesis is a major aspect of

development in both plants and animals
but only in animals does it involve the
movement of cells.
Changes in Cell Shape
The formation of the
neural tube is
affected by
microtubules and
microfilaments.
Cell Migration

The cytoskeleton also drives cell

migration, or cell crawling.
The active movement of cells from one
place to another.
Ingastrulation, tissue invagination is
caused by changes in both cell shape
and cell migration.
Derivatives of Endoderm: Digestive
Tube and Survival of Gill Arches
During gastrulation, the
archenteron forms as
the primitive gut.
This endodermal cavity
eventually produces:
Digestive tract
Lining of pharynx and
lungs
Most of the liver and
pancreas
Thyroid, parathyroid
glands and thymus
Derivatives of Endoderm: Digestive
Tube and Survival of Gill Arches
Pharyngeal pouches are derivatives of the
digestive tract.
Arise in early embryonic development of all
vertebrates.
During development, endodermally-lined
pharyngeal pouches interact with overlying
ectoderm to form gill arches.
In fish, gill arches develop into gills.
In terrestrial vertebrates:
No respiratory function
1st arch and endoderm-lined pouch form upper and lower
jaws, and inner ear.
2nd, 3rd, and 4th gill pouches form tonsils, parathyroid
gland and thymus.
Derivatives of Mesoderm: Support,
Movement and the Beating Heart
Most muscles arise
from mesoderm
along each side of
the neural tube.
The mesoderm
divides into a linear
series of somites (38
in humans).
The Common Vertebrate Heritage

Vertebrates share a
common ancestry and
a common pattern of
early development.
Vertebrate hallmarks
all present briefly.
Dorsal neural tube
Notochord

Pharyngeal gill

pouches
Postanal tail