8 GENERAL SYLLOGISTIC

LAWS/RULES

Rule No. 1
The middle term must be
distributed at least once.

The syllogism must have three terms,

neither more nor fewer. To reason is in
fact to comparetwoterms withone and
the same third, so as to see what logical
relation exists between the two terms so
compared.

rule no. 1
This rule may be violated by defect, in using
onlytwoterms, or by excess, in using more
than three.
1)

A syllogism withtwoterms is, e. g., where

one of the premises is tautological.
E. g. Every effect has a cause.
But the universe is an effect.
Therefore the universe has a cause.

This first rule is violated by the form of sophism

calledpetitio principii, which resolvesthe

rule no. 1
2)

A syllogism containsmore than three termswhen

one term is equivocal and is taken in different
acceptations.
E. g.
The operations of thought have the brain as organ.
An operation which has the brain as organ is material.
Therefore the operations of thought are material.

In this syllogism the middle term,has the brain as organ,

is equivocal.

rule no. 1
3)

A syllogism that commits the fallacy

ofundistributed middleviolates the rule.
E. g.
All ministers are men.
Lloyd is a man.
Therefore, Lloyd is a minister.

The middle term is supposed to provide a

satisfactory common ground between the
subject and predicate terms of the conclusion,
something which is not fulfilled if none of the
middle terms in the syllogism is distributed.

Rule No. 2
If a term is distributed in the conclusion,
then it must be distributed in a premise.

The extremes must be the same in the conclusion

as in the premises. The conclusion expresses the
results of the comparison made in the premises. It
cannot go beyond that; otherwise it would pass
from the terms compared in the premises
tootherterms, and thus would violate the first rule,
the essential condition of reasoning.

rule no. 2
E. g.
All metals are electric conductors.
Mercury is a metal.
Therefore, Mercury is not an electric conductor.
1)

In the first argument, the major termelectric

conductor is distributed in the conclusion (Epredicate term) but not in the major premise (Apredicate term). Thus, the syllogism commits
thefallacy of illicit major(also called illicit
process of the major term).

rule no. 2
E. g.
Some boxers are college graduates.
Some boxers are rich persons.
Therefore, all rich persons are college
graduates.
2)

The second example commits thefallacy of

illicit minor (or illicit process of the minor
term). The minor termrich person is distributed
in the conclusion (A-subject term) but not in the
minor premise (I-predicate term).

rule no. 2

The logic behind Rule 2 is that the conclusion

cannot validly give more information than is
contained in the premises. An argument that has a
term distributed in the conclusion but not in the
premises hasmorein the conclusion than it does
in the premises and is therefore invalid. (Logically,
it is permissible to have more in a premise than
what appears in the conclusion, so Rule 2 is not
transgressed if a term is distributed in a premise
but not in the conclusion. Keep also in mind that if
no terms are distributed in the conclusion, Rule 2
cannot be violated.)