Structural Construction

Fuselage
Wing (Mainplane)
Empennage ( Tailplane + Vertical Fin)

Fuselage Structure
Most airplane were built with truss structure before WW1 that
used strut and wired-braced wings, fabric covered hull(fuselage)
and empennage.
Then the a/c were built by using wooden formers and stringers
over the framework to produce a more streamlined shape.
Next in advance structural designs came with stressed skin
structure, allowing a/c to be built with more streamlined shape
and provide further reduction in weight because the skin itself
carried the structural load called Monocoque (single-shell).
Then Semi Monocoque is develop to overcome the disadvantage
in monocoque design by introduced frames, ribs, longerons,
stringers where all a/c load will be distributed evenly to all
structure members.

1.TRUSS FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION

By definition, a truss is a form of construction in which a number of
members (or struts), are joined to form a rigid structure normally
covered with non-load carrying material such as cloth, fabric or thin
sheets of wood.
Very early aircraft used a method of
construction referred to
as a Pratt Truss, where struts were held in compression, and wires, which
ran diagonally between the struts, were in tension.

Pratt Truss
7

TRUSS FUSELAGE - WARREN TRUSS

When fuselages were subsequently made from welded tubes, the Warren
russ became popular. In this arrangement, the longerons are separated by
iagonal members which carry both compressive and tensile loads.

Warren Truss
8

Wing construction
Truss-type

Stressed-skin

Transmitting lift into the structure

Lift must be transmit to structure in a
manner that a/c can be balance during
flight and wings normally located in that
places of center of lift
Then lift distribution along the wing will
continue to spar,frames and finally to
fuselage and a/c will fly.

10

AIRFOIL SECTION
Lift producing surface such as wing or helicopter rotor have an aerodynamic
shape called airfoil.

11

AIRFOIL SECTION

In General :
As Angle of
Attack
increases
LIFT also
increase.

12

Semi-monocoque Construction

With a semi-monocoque construction technique, the skin is reinforced by the use of a sub-frame of
internal components consisting of bulkheads, formers, stringers and longerons. With these
components, the load imposed on the aircraft are carried from the skin into the supporting structure.

13

Wing parts

14

WING CONSTRUCTION
Usually consist of :
FRONT SPAR
MID SPAR
REAR SPAR
Spars Lateral structure members that will form the shape of the
wing
Ribs Chord wise structures designed to resist shear loads and give
the aerofoil its shape. Ribs are usually split into Nose Ribs (forward of
the main spar), Center Ribs (between the front and rear spars) and
Trailing Edge Ribs (at the rear of the main spar. They have flanged
lightning holes to increase stiffness and reduce weight.
Stringers Span wise members attached to the skin to stiffen and
support the skin against buckling

15

Wing stringers

16

WING CONSTRUCTION MODERN AIRPLANES

17

WING CONSTRUCTION

Wood and fabric type wing structure

18

CENTER WING BOX CONSTRUCTION

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WING COMPONENTS

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Truss type
Utilized fabric covering method on wing structure
Sitka spruce normally used to make the spar
The structure utilize compression struts or compression ribs to
take the compressive load together with drag wire, anti drag wires
and finally will be rigged to form the lightweight and strong
foundation for fabric covered wings.

21

Empennage Section
TAILPLANE AND FIN CONSTRUCTION
The Tailplane (horizontal stabilizer) and Fin (vertical
stabilizer) are similar to the mainplane construction.
They have the same type of basic frame work
consisting of one or more spars, ribs and stringers
(sometimes called stiffeners).
The fittings attached to the lower end of the spars
of a typical fin structure, are used to bolt the fin to
the fuselage.

22

EMPENNAGE
The correct name for the tail
section of an airplane is
empennage.
The empennage includes the
entire tail group, consisting of
fixed surfaces such as the vertical
stabilizer and the horizontal
stabilizer.
The movable surfaces include the
rudder, the elevator, and one or
more trim tabs.
All the fixed and movable surfaces
have similar construction to the
main plane or wings.

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ELEVATOR, RUDDER AND STABILIZER CONSTRUCTION

24

Flight Control Surfaces

Primary Flight Control

Aileron
Rudder
Elevator

Secondary Flight Control:

Spoiler
Tab
Flaps
Slats

25

26

CONTROL SURFACE COMPONENTS

27

AIRPLANE PARTS AND FUNCTION

28

Flight Control System

WHY DO WE NEED FLIGHT CONTROL
SYSTEM?
HOW FLIGHT CONTROLS CAN AFFECT
FLIGHT PATH?
WHEN DO WE USE FLIGHT CONTROL
SURFACES?

29

Control Systems
Changing the camber,
aerodynamic shape of the surface
Creates a change in the lift and
drag produced
Rotation produces the desired
change in flight path

30

AILERON
The primary roll control
Have at both side of the wing
Deflects differently from each other
When LEFT AILERON deflect UPWARD,
the LEFT WING will GO DOWN, thus the
AIRCRAFT will ROLL to the LEFT

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Aileron

On wide body aircraft they have 2 ailerons on

each wing which called
Inboard aileron
Outboard aileron
The OUTBOARD AILERON aileron is LOCKED
during high speed flight
The reason is manufacturer do not want to
overstress the aircraft with large turning moment
during high speed flight

32

Problem with Aileron

ADVERSE YAW
When ailerons are moved, the down
going aileron tends to produce more drag
(INDUCED DRAG) than the up going one.

If the down going aileron produces too

much drag then it may tend to turn the
aircraft in the wrong direction

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34

METHOD TO COUNTER ADVERSE

YAW

FRISE AILERON
DIFFERENTIAL AILERON
AILERON UPFLOAT

35

Frise Aileron
The aileron is deflected upward a lip extend down into the air stream.

As a result the up-going aileron produces more drag than the down
going aileron.
This helps provide some of the force required to start the aircraft yawing
in the desired direction of the turn. Usually this is enough force to provide
the required turn moment but not enough to overcome aileron drag.
Therefore, the pilot will still need to use the rudder to coordinate the
turn when large aileron deflections are employed.

36

Frise Aileron

37

Differential Aileron
Up going aileron moves through a greater
range of deflection than the down going one
Thus the aileron on the inside of the turn
produces same amount of drag than the one
on the outside of the turn
Thus preventing adverse yaw.
38

DIFFERENTIAL AILERONS

39

On some smaller aircraft the ailerons may be rigged into

their neutral position with a certain amount of upfloat.

In other words the neutral position of both ailerons is set

above the trailing edge of the wing.
This will mean that the up going aileron will move even
higher into the airflow with an increase in drag
The down going aileron will not move so far into the
airflow producing less drag.

40

Rudder
A directional control device
Hinged-mounted to the trailing edge of the vertical
stabilizer.
The rudder is operated by moving the appropriate
rudder pedals.
Pushing the right Rudder Pedal down will cause:
Rudder will deflect to the right
Nose of the airplane will move to the right

41

SIMULATION

42

ELEVATOR
Airplane pitch movement is control by elevator
Elevator hinged to trailing edge of horizontal
stabilizer
Elevator is operated by pulling or pushing the
control column
Pulling the control column :
Aircraft nose pitch up
Elevator deflects up

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SIMULATION

44

Ruddervator
Some smaller aircrafts utilize combined function
control
Ruddervator = Rudder + Elevator
Ruddervator normally used on aircraft fitted with a `V`
or butterfly tail
When the Ruddervators are both moved up
TOGETHER, they act as an elevator.
When one moves up and the other one moves down
then the effect is similar to a rudder

45

Ruddervator
control
When the Ruddervators
are both moved up
TOGETHER, they act as an
elevator.
When one moves up and
the other one moves down
then the effect is similar to
a rudder

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47

Elevons

Elevons = Aileron + Elevator

Provide both roll and pitch
By moving symmetrically in pitch or asymmetrically in
roll

48

Secondary Flight Control

To assist or to modify the effect of the

primary flight controls
Two basic types of secondary flight
control:
1.Modify the amount of lift the primary
control produces
2.Those that change the amount of force
needed to operate the primary controls
49

1. Modify the amount of lift

Aerodynamic lift is determine by the shape
and size of airfoil section. Change both factors
will change the amount of lift.
Flaps
Slats
Spoiler

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Flaps

Most widely used method for modifying lift

Most flaps are on trailing edge of wing on the inboard side
Some of the aircraft equipped with leading edge flaps

Types of flaps:
Plain
Split
slotted
Fowler

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Plain flap
Simplest type of flap
Hinged portion of the wing
trailing edge
It can be lowered to increase
the camber

52

Split flap
Consist of a plane that is
deflected from lower surface of the
wing
Increase the coefficient of lift
slightly more than plain flaps
But produces turbulent wake thus
increase large amount of drag

53

Slotted or Multi slotted flap

Act like a simple flap
There is a slot between the leading
edge of the flaps
Air from below the wing flow through
the slots and speeds up the air over
the upper surface delays the airflow
separation
Greater increase in coefficient of lift

54

Fowler flaps
Similar to slotted flaps except
they move aft along a set of
tracks
It increases the chord of the
wing and wing area when they
are lowered
Produce greater increase the
coefficient of lift with the least
change in drag

55

56

Leading Edge Flaps

Some aircraft have flaps on the
leading edge of the wing
It will increase the camber of the
wing
2 types:
Droop leading edge
Kruger flaps

57

 Droop leading edge is lowered at

the same time as trailing edge to
increase the camber of the wing
allow it to attain a higher angle of
attack
Kruger flaps is special type of
leading edge flaps
Effectively increase the wing
camber of the wing when it is
lowered
It is folded at the leading edge of
the wing
Control by the trailing edge
movement

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Kruger flap

59

Flaperon
Combination of Flaps +
Aileron

60

Slats
Slats form the leading edge of the wing
when retracted
When it is extended it form a duct(SLOT)
that forces the high energy air across the
surface of the wing to delay the airflow
separation

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62

Spoiler
Located at the above of wing surface
By its name the main function is to spoiled lift
Used in conjunction with aileron to assist in roll control if move
differentially
It also can move symmetrically and act as speed brake
Ground spoiler activate only on ground by using the weight/squat
switch at the landing gear.

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65

66

 Airplane become larger and faster + high performance

The control system loads become extremely high
So the pilot need some kind of assistance to move them
Example of the device used:
Tabs
Balance panel
Bungee spring

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Tabs
Small auxiliary device attached on trailing edge of
primary control surfaces
Usually on ONE SIDE only
There are several types of tabs which are:
Trim tabs
Balance tabs
Servo tabs
Spring tabs
Antiservo tabs

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Trim tabs
Controllable from cockpit
Produce aerodynamic load on control surface that
hold
Commonly attach at elevator for adjustment of tail
load so that the a/c can be flown hand and feet off

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Balance tabs
To decrease excessive control force
Location same as trim tabs sometime serve
both function and can be adjusted from cockpit
Control rod connected to fixed surface to create
an aerodynamic force that aids the movement
of the surface

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Anti servo tabs

To decrease sensitivity on horizontal
tail
Serve same as balance tab but move
in same direction of control surface

Servo tabs
Installed when the aircraft requiring
huge force to move the control
surface
Assist pilot to moved the control
surface manually
The tabs will move the main surface
by deflected aerodynamic force

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Spring tabs use in high

performance airplanes
Used under high speed
condition

Use spring in
controlling movement of
the tabs at high speed
At high speed force
become excessive
The torsion rod twist
and allows the horn to
move the surface

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Adjustable stabilizer
Whole stabilizer can be move
By adjusting the leading
edge of stabilizer
Raising the leading edge will
gives the airplane nose down
Control by captain in cockpit
through trim switch

73

74

Balance panel
Use on some large aircraft
To assist
aileron

pilot

moving

the

Used low pressure due to vent

gap to pulls the balance panel
down
To assist the pilot holding the
aileron upward deflection

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Bungee spring
Some airplane used
spring whose tension
controlled by the pilot
The spring will hold the
force on the control
surface
This will allow handsoff-flight

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Bob weight

Sometimes known as counter weights.

The purpose of the bob weight is to reduce the likelihood
the pilot will overstressthe control column.
Difficult to pull on the aircraft as g-force increases.

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Aerodynamic balance
Usually achieved by extending a portion of
control surfaces ahead of hinge line
The airflow will assist in moving the
control surfaces

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Stall Warning System

What is stall?
How the pilot know and how to prevent
stall?
What are the indication before the aircraft
going to stall?
LINK
79

END

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CONTROL SYSTEMS
Longitudinal Controls
Consist of a fixed horizontal stabilizer on empennage with
elevator and trim tabs to adjust down load to get hand off
during flight
Elevator is connected to control wheel using steel control
cables and attached to push pull rod to move up and
down the control surface
Some modern a/c provide elevator with down spring that
automatically lower the nose to prevent stall during
landing coz trim tabs alone not enough to hold the nose
down due to the a/c CG too aft position.
A/c with stabilators also provide with down spring system

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A typical elevator-control system consists of cables connecting the control

wheel with a bell crank in the rear fuselage. The bell crank is connected to the
elevator control horn by a push rod.

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Aileron Controls

Elevator Controls

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STABILATORS
A special type of pitch control surface that combines the functions of the
elevator and the horizontal stabiliser. Often referred to as a slab or allflying tailplane . The stabilator is a complete all-moving horizontal
stabiliser which can change its angle of attack when the control column
is moved and thereby alter the total amount of lift generated by the tail.

84

When the aerodynamic tail load is insufficient due to an aft center of gravity
condition, an elevator down spring may be used to supply a mechanical load to
lower the nose.
85

Lateral & Directional Controls

Turning a/c involve both aileron and rudder
Aileron that move downward cause Aileron Drag
which creates more lift and drag
Sometime it refer to Adverse Yaw effect
Two mechanism to reduce aileron drag
Frise aileron
Most commonly use
Nose of leading edge of aileron sticking out when aileron
is rise up creating more parasite drag at bottom of the
wing to counter the induce drag

86

A typical aileron control system also consists of cable, bell cranks and push
rods. Rotation of the control wheel causes one aileron to rise and the other to
lower.
87

Aileron Controls

Aileron Controls

88

In a typical rudder control system, cable transmit control inputs from the pilots
rudder pedals to the rudder-control horn.
89

Aileron Controls

Rudder Controls

90

Rudder-aileron
interconnect spring
Connect the control
wheel to the rudder
control system
through the
interconnecting
spring
The spring pulls
forward on the
rudder pedal just
enough to prevent
the nose to yawing

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High lift Devices

Flaps
Most universal lift modifying devices
Change the camber of the wing,
increasing lift and drag
Can increase in lift coefficient and wing
area which has effect on lift and drag

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FLAPS
A wing flap is a hinged, pivoted or sliding aerofoil, usually near the
trailing edge of the wing. It is designed to increase lift, drag or both
when deflected and is used principally for landing although some
large aircrafts use partial flap deflection for take off.
Flaps provide the following advantages:
The higher the lift coefficient obtained from the use of flaps permits
a lower landing speed.
When air brakes are used, flaps permits a shorter run on the ground
in stopping the aircraft.
The use of flaps makes it possible to have steeper angle without
increasing the speed, thus permitting the aircraft to clear obstacles in
landing.

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 Extending flaps primarily increases

thecamberor curvature of the wing
airfoil raising the maximumlift
coefficient
This allows the aircraft to generate as
much lift but at a lower speed, reducing
thestalling speedof the aircraft, or the
minimum speed at which the aircraft will
maintain flight

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95

FLAPS

96

97

Plain flaps
Simple device
same size as
aileron
Increment of 10,
25, 40 degrees
Minimum effect so
it very seldom use

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TYPES OF FLAPS
PLAIN FLAP This device is hinged to the
trailing edge of the wing and is the simplest
method of changing the camber of an
aerofoil. In the retracted position, the flap
streamlines and adds to the area of the wing
surface.

SPLIT FLAP This is a flat surface hinged to,

or set into the lower side of the trailing edge
of the wing. The shape of the upper surface
of the wing is unchanged when the split flap
is lowered. This type of device creates more
drag than the plain flap because of its
turbulent wake.

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TYPES OF FLAPS
SLOTTED FLAP This type of device
moves aft and down when extended. A
slot is formed between the wing and the
flap permitting a smooth flow of air
between the two components.

FOWLER FLAP This mechanism moves

backward on rollers in a track and then is
rotated downward to provide high lift
capability. When down, this device
increases lift and wing area.

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101

Split flaps
Slotted flaps
Fowler flaps

102

103

Leading Edge Devices

Slats
Slots
Leading edge flaps
Stall strips

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105

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107

Special wing tips

Winglets

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when a wing is producing lift there is high pressure below the wing
and low pressure above. As you know air wants to flow from high
to low and can do so around the end of the wing. This creates a
phenomenon called spanwise flow - air below the wing moves
outwards to try to flow around the wingtip.

109

Wing Fences
Flat metal plate fitted parallel to free
stream flow.
Prevent spanwise movement of the air
on swept wing a/c and my be found in
front of control surface to increase their
effectiveness

110

Canard surface & T-tails

111

FLIGHT CONTROLS CONSTRUCTION

112

FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

The flight control surfaces are hinged or movable airfoils designed
to change the attitude of the aircraft during flight. Flight control
surfaces are grouped as systems and are classified being either
PRIMARY or SECONDARY.
Primary controls are those that provide control over the yaw, pitch
and roll of the aircraft. Secondary controls include the speed brakes
and flap/slats systems.
All systems consists of the control surfaces, cockpit controls,
connecting linkage, and other necessary operating mechanisms.

113

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN - GENERAL

All aircraft must be built to the requirement laid down by the authority
of the country in which they are built. E.g. CAA or FAA.
Safety factor The normal specified minimum is 1.5 but can be
changed (with authority). The airframe part / substructure must be
able to withstand 1 times the maximum load it is likely to
experience in service.
Fatigue The aircraft must be able to withstand cyclic loading at
normal level.
Pressurization loads The stress (cabin differential pressure) can be
as high as 8 psi. The load can reach 10,000 lbs per square inch.
Other loads fuel & oil, gust loads, engine, APU, landing gear, towing,
ground movements etc.

114

FAIL SAFE CONSTRUCTION

In structure design fail safe is associated with the prevention of
crack propagation. The best way to stop a crack from developing is to
design a discontinuity within its path.
In composite materials, the discontinuity is provided by the fibres
which means that a crack will not normally develop across the fibres
but will develop along them.
Example: Make the structural components more than one part.

115

STRUCTURE LOADING
Aircraft structures must be able to withstand various stresses:
> Stress = Load / Area
Tension
Compression
Bending
Shear
Hoop stress stress due to internal pressure e.g. cabin
pressurisation
Strain deformation due to stress
Fatique cyclic loading

116

STRUCTURE LOADING

117

PRACTICAL USE OF FLIGHT CONTROLS

BETTER CONTROL OF THE TAKE-OFF OPERATIONS BY INCREASING
LIFT
BETTER CONTROL OF DESCENT/LANDING BY INCREASING LIFT OR
DRAG
PERFORMANCE OF FLIGHT MANOEUVRES BY VARYING LIFT OR DRAG

118

FACTORS AFFECTING THE DESIGN OF A FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

Weight of the Aircraft
The force required to operate the controls of an aircraft is directly
related to its weight. The heavier the aircraft, the greater are the
required control operating forces and the required degree of control
authority, i.e. the range of movement of the controls.
Dimensions of the Aircraft
The dimension of an aircraft are related to its weight in many cases. In
precise terms, the relation wing area to weight is important. The
higher the wing loading, the greater the control operating forces and
vice versa.

119

FACTORS AFFECTING THE DESIGN OF A FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

Operating Range of Speed
The operating range of speed imposes certain limitations on the
design of flight controls. For operation at high speeds high control
forces are required. At the same time, the degree of the control
authority is to be kept low.
High speed aircraft are normally designed for high altitude operations.
However, these aircraft will have to fly at lower altitudes during climbout and descent phases. This means that the flight controls must cope
with a wide range of speeds and altitudes.

120

Operating Range of Altitude

The operating range of altitude is an important factor because of the
changes in air density. For instance the high air density at low
altitudes does not require/permit large degrees of control authority.
On the other hand lower air densities at higher altitudes
require/permit larger degrees of control authority. The operating force
requirement, however, would be less than that required at low
altitudes.
Degree of Stability
The degree of stability is a very important factor as it limits the
degree of control for any particular category of aircraft. Stability is
defined as the property (or capability) of a system (aircraft) to return
(or to remain in) a state of equilibrium after having been disturbed
from a state of steady and unaccelerated flight.

121

PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

The primary flight controls are used to move the aircraft about one of
the 3 primary control axis.
They are connected via a control system to the pilots controls in the
cockpit or flight deck. The controls must be instinctive and work in
the correct sense.
INSTINCTIVE When the pilot pushes the control column forward, the
aircraft dives or pitches nose down and vice-versa. When the pilot
moves the control column, or hand wheel left, the aircraft rolls to the
left and vice-versa. When the pilot pushes his/her foot forward on the
rudder bar, the aircraft turns to the left and vice versa.
SENSE The control surfaces should move in the correct relationship
to the control column or rudder bar.
122

PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

Primary controls are connected to the pilots
control column and rudder pedals.
Ailerons for rolling, operated by sideward
movement of the control wheel
Elevators for pitch, operated by fore and aft
movements of the control column
Rudder for yawing, operated by the rudder
pedals.

123

A typical aircraft's primary flight controls in motion

A control column or a control yoke attached to a columnfor roll and
pitch, which moves the ailerons when turned or deflected left and right,
and moves the elevators when moved backwards or forwards
Rudder pedals to control yaw, which move the rudder; left foot forward
will move the rudder left for instance.
Throttle controls to control engine speed or thrust for powered aircraft.

Even when an aircraft uses different kinds of surfaces, such as a Vtail/ruddervator, flaperons, or elevons, to avoid pilot confusion the
aircraft will still normally be designed so that the yoke or stick
controls pitch and roll in the conventional way, as will the rudder
pedals for yaw.

124

The image shows the basic principles

and the correct sense of movement of
the primary controls, also illustrating a
simple mechanical primary flying
control system.

125

PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

126

CLASSIFICATION OF FLIGHT CONTROLS

SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROLS
Secondary flight controls are control surfaces that are used as:
Trimming devices
Control force reducing devices
Lift control devices
Drag increasing devices

127

Secondary controls
In addition to the primary flight controls for roll, pitch, and yaw, there
are often secondary controls available to give the pilot finer control over
flight or to ease the workload.
The most commonly-available control is a wheel or other device to
control elevator trim, so that the pilot does not have to maintain
constant backward or forward pressure to hold a specific pitch attitude [1]
(other types of trim, for rudder and ailerons, are common on larger
aircraft but may also appear on smaller ones).
Many aircraft have wing flaps, controlled by a switch or a mechanical
lever, which alter the shape of the wing for improved control at the
slower speeds used for takeoff and landing. Other secondary flight
control systems may be available, including slats, spoilers, air brakes and
variable-sweep wings.

128

SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

129

AILERON
Ailerons are primary roll control. To roll the airplane to the left, turn
the control wheel to the left. The aileron on left wing moves up,
decreasing the camber or curvature of the left wing and decreasing
the lift it produces. A control cable connected to a carry through or
balance cable pulls the right aileron down increasing its camber and
lift. The airplane rolls to the left about its longitudinal axis.

130

SPOILERS
Many large jet transport airplanes have two ailerons on each wing and
flight spoilers to assist in roll control. The spoilers deflect on the wing
with the upward moving aileron. The outboard ailerons are locked in
their faired or streamlined position when the trailing edge flaps are
up. The inboard ailerons and flight spoilers provide enough roll control
for high speed flight, but when the flaps are lowered the inboard and
outboard ailerons work together to provide the additional roll control
needed for low speed flight.

131

PITCH CONTROL
Longitudinal control is exercised by means of elevators. These are
hinge-mounted at the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer.

132

ELEVATOR MOVEMENTS

133

STABILATORS
Some airplanes use a stabilator for pitch
control. This is a single piece horizontal
surface that pivots around a point
approximately one third of the way back
from the leading edge.
When the control wheel is pulled back the
leading edge of the stabilator moves down
and increases the downward force
produced by the tail. This rotates the nose
up.
When the wheel is pushed in, the nose of
the stabilator moves up decreasing the tail
load and the airplane rotates nose down.

134

MMING / CONTROL FORCE REDUCING DEVICES

BS

s are commonly used as trimming or control force reducing

vices. A tab may be fitted to the trailing edge of one of the primary
trol surfaces. When used as trimming device it is controlled
arately. When used as a control force reducing device it is moved
omatically, or indirectly to produce the desired effect.

PE OF TABS

im tab

pring tab

alance tab

135

CANARD
A canard is a horizontal stabilizing surface located ahead of the main
wing and the angle of incidence of the canard is greater than that of
the main wing, so it will stall first. When the canard stalls the nose
drops restoring the smooth airflow over the canard. Its lift is increased
bringing the airplane back to straight and level flight. Some canards
have moveable surfaces on the trailing edge for pitch control and
others pivot the entire surface for control.

136

TRIM TABS

137

ADJUSTABLE STABILIZER
Rather than using a movable tab on the trailing edge of the elevator,
some airplanes have an adjustable stabilizer. With this arrangement,
linkages pivot the horizontal stabilizer about its rear spar. This is
accomplished by use of a jackscrew mounted on the leading edge of
the stabilator.

On small airplanes, the jackscrew is cable-operated with a trim wheel

or crank, and on larger airplanes, it is motor driven. The trimming
effect and cockpit indications for an adjustable stabilizer are similar to
those of a trim tab.

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Bob weights
Bob weights are sometimes known as counter weights. Their purpose is
to change the amount of control force required to deflect the control
column under different g-loadings. Normally the amount of force the pilot
must apply to the control column, assuming reversible controls, varies
with airspeed only. However, by installing a bob weight the aeronautical
engineer can make it more difficult to pull on the control column as gforce increases.The purpose of the bob weight is to reduce the likely
hood the pilot will overstress the aircraft.

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CONTROL HORNS
On an aircraft with reversible controls the pilot must apply a force to the
control column sufficient to keep the control surface deflected in the air
stream. To assist the pilot the aircraft design will usually provide a control
horn, such as the one shown to the right. The horn is simply an extension to
the control surface which projects ahead of the hinge. The air striking the
horn assists the pilot to deflect the control surface. Horns are usually
provided on elevators and rudders. Ailerons usually do not require horns.

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MASS BALANCE
When a control is deflected a low pressure area forms on the
cambered side. This tends to pull the control back into alignment with
the wing, stabilizer or fin as the case may be. However, the control
surface has mass and therefore momentum. If the centre of gravity of
the control surface is behind the hinge, the control tends to overshoot
the point of alignment. The result is a tendency for the control to
flutter. Flutter could become sufficiently severe that the aircraft could
break up in flight.
To solve the above problem the control must be balanced, so that its
centre of gravity is in line with the hinge.

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