MOTIVATION

INTRODUCTION

MOTIVATION
Motivation

is a human
psychological characteristic that
affects a persons degree of
commitment. It is the set of
forces that move a person
towards a goal. It deals with how
behavior is energized, how it is
directed and how it is sustained.

The underlying concept of motivation

is some drivingforce within
individuals by which they attempt to
achievesome goal in order to fulfil
some need or expectation.
(Mullins)

Mitchell

defines motivation as,

the degree to whichan individual
wants and chooses to engage in
certain specified behaviours.

According

to Fred Luthans,
"motivation is a process that
starts with a physiological or
psychological deficiency of a
need, that activates behavior or
a drive that is aimed at a goal or
incentive."

PROCESS OF MOTIVATION

The

above definition
highlighted three elements
needs, drives and goals.

Needs

are basic wants and

desires that exist in each
individual.

For

instance, the basic

needs for an individual are
food, shelter etc. Similarly,
the basic needs for an
organization are land,
labour, capital, and
machinery.

Drives

are the motives, that fulfill

the needs.
For instance, the individual drive
could be hunger and thirst and
organizational drive could be to pay
rent/lease or purchase the land to
own the premises.
Goals are the means employed,
to generate the desired outcome.
For instance, an organizational
goal, could be to increase the sales
by 10%.

Classification of Motivation
Theories
Based on the human needs, eminent
thinkers classified motivational theories
under:
Need

theories or Content Theories

Process theory

Content Theories
The content theories are further classified
as :
1. Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory
2. Herzberg Two Factor Theory
3. McClellands Achievement Theory
4. Alderfers ERG Theory

Maslows Need Hierarchy

Theory
One of the most popular
explanations for

human motivation was developed by the

psychologist, Abraham Maslow and popularized
during the early 1960s.

Maslows hierarchy of needs theory argues that

human needs form a five-level hierarchy (see
Figure 16.2).
Maslow classified these needs into five groups:
physiological needs, need for security, social
needs (love and belongingness), self-esteem
needs and self-actualization needs.

Physiological needs

Physiological

needs are the basic needs

for food, clothing and shelter. An
organization helps in satisfying the
physiological needs of its employees by
offering them adequate wages. According
to Maslows theory, until these needs are
satisfied to the degree necessary to
maintain life, other needs will not
motivate an individual. Further, once
these basic needs are satisfied, they no
longer motivate the individual.

Safety and security needs

Once

the physiological needs of an

individual are met, the individual aims to
satisfy his safety and security needs.
These needs include the need to be free
from the fear of physical, psychological or
financial harm. Once the individual feels
reasonably safe and secure, he/she turns
his/her attention to developing
relationships with others.

Social needs
Social

needs are also called

belongingness needs or need for love.
They involve the desire to affiliate with
and be accepted by others. Managers can
satisfy this need of employees by
allowing social interaction between them
by means of appropriate office layout,
coffee breaks, and by providing them
lunch and recreational facilities.

Esteem needs
This

level represents the higher needs of

humans. They include the desire to have a
positive self-image and obtain respect and
recognition from others.
An organization may appreciate an
employees performance by rewarding him
with a pay hike, a promotion, a wellfurnished office, a car, a personal assistant
and other benefits such as stock options,
club memberships, etc. Such measures on
the part of an organization help to satisfy
the esteem needs of its employees.

Self-actualization needs

These

comprise the highest level needs in Maslows

needs hierarchy theory. Self-actualization needs are
an individuals need to realize his full potential
through continuous growth and self-development.
Here, the individual is concerned with matters such
as the freedom to express his creativity and
translate innovative ideas into reality, pursue
knowledge and develop his talents in uncharted
directions.

Most management experts feel that employees

need for self-actualization can be satisfied by
allowing them to participate in decision-making
and giving them the power to shape their jobs.

HERZBERGS TWO-FACTORY
THEORY
In the late 1950s,
Herzberg and his
associates conducted a study involving
two hundred engineers and accountants
to find out the extent of their satisfaction
or dissatisfaction with their jobs.
The

respondents in the study were asked

to recall instances when they were
particularly satisfied with their work and
instances when they were particularly
dissatisfied with their work. The factors
which made them express satisfaction
were related to the content of their job.

According

to the respondents, the

aspects of their job which gave them
satisfaction included having
opportunities to achieve something
through their work, receiving
recognition from others for their work,
having opportunities for promotion and
advancement, and having a chance to
take on new responsibilities. Herzberg
and his associates call these job
content factors which contribute to the
individuals satisfaction, motivators.

 On

the other hand, feelings of discontent or

dissatisfaction were found to be associated with
factors related to the job context, or factors that
affect the immediate work environment but
were not directly related to the job itself.

The

respondents complained about poor

supervision, the inability to mingle with other
people on the job, uncomfortable working
conditions, low pay and benefits and job
insecurity.

These

job context factors that lead to

dissatisfaction of individuals have been termed
as hygiene factors by Herzberg.

 Based

on these results, Herzberg

concluded that the presence of good job
content factors leads to satisfaction, and
the absence of good job context factors
leads to dissatisfaction.

The findings of Herzberg and his

associates suggest that the best way to
motivate workers is to satisfy their need for
job content factors. Herzberg contended
that hygiene factors were important to
prevent workers from feeling dissatisfied
but did not lead to their satisfaction.

HERZBERGS TWO-FACTORY
THEORY
Hygiene Factors
or Maintenance
Factors:
Job security
Good pay
Working conditions
Type of Supervision
Interpersonal
relations

Motivators:

Responsibilities
Challenging Work
Recognition
Achievement

McClellands needs theory

David C. McClelland has contributed to the theories of

motivation by highlighting the importance of three
basic needs to understand motivation. They are
achievement needs, affiliation needs, and power needs.

1.

Need for achievement

Achievement-motivated people thrive on
pursuing and attaining goals. People with a high
need for achievement have an intense desire for
success. They typically seek competitive
situations in which they can achieve results
through their own efforts and which allow them
to obtain immediate feedback on how they are
doing. They take a realistic approach to risk.
People with high need for achievement are
characterized by restlessness and willingness to
work long hours. Individuals with high need for
achievement can be a valuable source of
creativity and innovative ideas in organizations.

Need for achievement

Achievement-motivated

people thrive on pursuing

and attaining goals. People with a high need for
achievement have an intense desire for success.
They typically seek competitive situations in
which they can achieve results through their own
efforts and which allow them to obtain immediate
feedback on how they are doing. They take a
realistic approach to risk.
People with high need for achievement are
characterized by restlessness and willingness to
work long hours. Individuals with high need for
achievement can be a valuable source of
creativity and innovative ideas in organizations.

 Need

Need for affiliation

for affiliation refers to the desire to

maintain warm, friendly relationships with
others. Affiliation-motivated people are
usually friendly and like to socialize with
others. They suffer pain when they are
rejected.

Need for power

The need for power refers to the desire to
be influential and to have an impact on a
group. Power-motivated individuals see
almost every situation as an opportunity
to seize control or dominate others.

Alderfers
ERG
theory
As opposed to Maslows five needs,

Alderfer suggested that needs can be

classified into three groups of core needs
existence, relatedness, and growth (hence
the theory is referred to as ERG theory).

Existence

needs are concerned with

physiological well being of an individual.
The relatedness needs pertain to the desire
to establish and maintain interpersonal
relationships. The growth needs pertain to
the desire to be creative, make useful and
productive contributions and have
opportunities for personal development.

Process Theories of
Motivation

Process

theories of motivation attempt to

explain the thought processes of
individuals when they decide whether or
not to behave in a certain way.
These motivation approaches outline the
factors to be considered if the workplace is
to be made productive.
Process

theories are sometimes called

cognitive theories due to their focus on the
thought processes associated with
motivation.

Process Theories of
Motivation
Process theories
are categorized in two
categories:

Vrooms Expectancy theory

2. Equity theory.
1.

Vrooms Expectancy theory

The

expectancy theory of motivation was

originally proposed by Victor H. Vroom. He
contends that before putting in the effort to
perform at a given level, individuals consider
the following three issues:
What is the probability that the performance
will be up to the required level?
What is the probability that the performance
will lead to the desired outcomes?
What is the value assigned by the individual to
the potential outcomes?

 The

figure the basic components of the

expectancy theory. Their relationship is
stated in the following formula:
Valence * Expectancy * Instrumentality =
Motivation
Motivational
force
Force
directing
specific
behavioural
alternatives

Expectancy
Perceived
probability
that effort will
lead to good
performance

Instrumentalit
y
Perceived
probability
that good
performance
will lead to
desired
ourcomes
(Rewards)

Valence
Value of
expected
outcome
s to the
individua
l

Valence
Valence

is the motivational component that

refers to the preference of an individual for
a particular outcome. In simple words, it
signifies how much reward one wants.

The

valence component helps an individual

assess the anticipated value of various
outcomes. If the possible reward or
outcome of the work is of interest to the
individual performing it, the valence
component will be high.

 The

valence is set in the range of +1,

through 0, to -1.

When

an individual has a strong desire for

the outcome, the valence is positive.

On

the other hand, if the individual wishes

to avoid the outcome, the valence is
negative.

However,

if an individual is indifferent to
the outcome, the valence is zero.

 Expectancy

Expectancy

is the probability that certain

efforts will lead to the required
performance.
In other words, expectancy is the probability
(ranging from 0 to 1) that a particular action
or effort will lead to a particular outcome.
For an individual to exert efforts towards a
goal, he must see a non-zero probability of
effort leading to that goal.
In other words, all individuals will be
motivated to reach their goal only when
they see some connection between their
effort and performance.

Instrumentality
This

refers to the probability that successful

performance will lead to certain outcomes.

The

major outcomes we consider are the

potential rewards such as incentives or
bonuses, or a good feeling of
accomplishment. If I get a first class in
MBA, how likely is it that Ill get a good job?
This example illustrates instrumentality.
Like effort-performance-expectancy,
performance-outcome-instrumentality can
range in magnitude from 0 to 1.

 J.

Equity theory

Stacy Adams is the proponent of the

equity (or inequity) theory.

His

theory of motivation focuses on

peoples sense of fairness or justice. The
equity theory refers to the subjective
judgment of an individual about the
fairness of his reward, relative to the
inputs (which include many factors such
as effort, experience, education, etc.), in
comparison with the rewards of others.

 The

essential aspects of the equity theory

may be shown in an equation as follows:

Inequity occurs when

 The

inputs individuals consider in

assessing the ratio of their inputs and
outcomes, relative to those of others,
may cover a broad range of variables
including educational background, skills,
experience, hours worked and
performance results.

Outcomes

can be pay, bonuses,

appreciation, amount of responsibility and
type of work assignments, and status
symbols like parking places, job titles,
office space, furniture, etc.

 When

individuals feel that their rewards are

not in accordance with their inputs, they
may be dissatisfied, reduce the quantity or
quality of output, or resign from the
organization.

When people perceive that they have been

equitably rewarded (output = input), they
will probably contribute the same level of
production output.

When

people perceive the rewards as being

more than equitable (output > input), they
may work harder.

Motivational Practices
In

motivating people toward higher

productivity and better performance, an
important step is to identify what they
want out of their jobs.
To fulfill their demands and expectations,
various motivation practices/techniques
are used by managers.

Some of the major

motivational
1. Rewards
Practices/techniques are:
2. Job Design
2. Job Design
3. Behaviour modification
4. Empowerment Participation
5. Goal setting
6. Motivating problem employees
7. Quality of work life
8. Participative Management

 Managers

Rewards

have found that job

performance and satisfaction can be
improved by properly administered
rewards.
Rewards may be defined as material or
psychological payoffs for the
accomplishment of tasks.
Rewards

can be broadly categorized into:

1. Extrinsic rewards
2. Intrinsic rewards.

Extrinsic rewards
Extrinsic rewards are pay-offs granted by
others. They include money, perks and
amenities, promotion, recognition, status
symbols, and praise.

Intrinsic (job content) rewards

Intrinsic (job content) rewards are selfgranted and internally experienced payoffs. Individuals prefer intrinsic rewards
such as satisfaction from performing
challenging and interesting jobs.

Types of Rewards
Membership

& Seniority based rewards

Job Status-based rewards
Competency-based rewards
Performance-based rewards:
a. ESOPS(Employee Stock Option
Schemes)
b. Team rewards
c. Individual rewards

JOB DESIGN
The

process of assigning tasks to a

job, including interdependency of
those tasks with other jobs is called
Job Design.
The way tasks & responsibilities are
grouped can affect productivity and
costs.

Factors affecting Job Design

Organizational Factors- task
characterisitics, flow of work,
ergonomics ( designing & shaping
jobs to fit physical abilities &
characterisitcs of individuals), work
practices.
2. Environmental Factors
3. Behavioural factors
1.

Job Design
Approaches/Techniques

There

are five popular approaches:

1. Job Rotation
2. Job Enlargement
3. Job Enrichment
4. Job engineering
5. Socio-technical systems

Job Enrichment
It

means adding a few more motivators to

a job to make it more rewarding. To be
specific, a job is enriched when the
nature of job is exciting, challenging and
creative or gives the job holder more
decision making, planning and controlling
powers.

Characteristics of an Enriched
Job

Behaviour modification
OB

Modification or OB Mod uses

positive reinforcement to encourage
desirable behaviours in employees.

Behaviour

modification is based on
the law of effect. According to this
law, the likelihood that the behaviour
will be repeated depends on its
consequences.

Participation
The

right kind of participation ensures an

increase in the motivation and knowledge levels
which contribute to the success of an enterprise.
Participation allows an individual to satisfy his or
her need for esteem (from self and from others).
It gratifies the need for affiliation.
Above all, it gives people a sense of
accomplishment and a chance for advancement.
MBO

is one of the most popular and modern

method of motivating employees at all levels for
better performance, since it ensures participation
and freedom in setting goals and achieving them.

Job Enrichment

A modern approach to motivation is job enrichment.

In job enrichment, the attempt is to build a higher

sense of challenge and achievement in jobs.

A job may be enriched in the following ways:

1. Allowing workers to make independent decisions on

issues like work methods, sequence and pace or the
acceptance or rejection of materials
2. Encouraging involvement and participation of
employees and interaction between workers
3. Making workers feel personally responsible for their
tasks

Job Enrichment
4.Ensuring that workers get to know how
their tasks contribute to the finished
product and the welfare of the enterprise
5.Giving people feedback on their job
performance