Professional Documents
Culture Documents
their Effects
Prof. S.N.Upadhyay
Visiting Professor, RGIPT, Rae Bareli
(Ex-Director & Professor, IIT BHU,
Varanasi)
Introduction
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Cradle to grave pollution refers to the many ways that a single product,
such as a car, can pollute during its lifetime. Each step, from mining
through final disposal, often results in the release of dozens of toxic
pollutants into the air, water, and land. Nearly all products, including food
and other agricultural products, create such stepwise pollution.
Definition of Pollution
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Pollution
Any waste discharges or even
natural environmental changes that
are directly detrimental to man.
Environmental pollution is any
disruption by man of natural system.
Something out of place.
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Pollution
An undesirable change in the physical,
chemical, or biological characteristics of
our air, land, and water, that may or will
hostilely affect human life or that of other
desirable species or industrial processes,
living conditions, and cultural assets or that
may or will waste or deteriorate our natural
resources.
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Pollution
Any man made addition into the
environment which is not ecologically
compatible to the existing environment.
Any unreasonable interference with the
beneficial uses of environment or its
components.
An impairment of suitability of air, water or
land mass for any of its beneficial uses,
actual or potential, by man caused
changes in quality.
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Pollution
Acts of introduction by man of extraneous
substances or energy into the environment
that induce unfavorable changes affecting
man directly or indirectly by endangering
his health, harming his living, resources
and ecosystem or by interfering with the
legitimate use of the environment.
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Pollution
All citizens have an inherent right to the
Pollution
Environmental pollution is the unfavorable alteration of
Air Pollution
Air pollution is the presence in the outdoor
atmosphere of one or more air contaminants in
sufficient quantities, of such characteristics, and
for such duration as to be or to threaten to be
injurious to humans, plants, or animals or to
property or which reasonably interferes with the
comfortable use and enjoyment of life or property.
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Air Pollution
The presence in outdoor atmosphere of one
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Types of Pollution
Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Solid Waste
Thermal Pollution
Noise Pollution
Land Degradation
Radiation Pollution
Pollutant
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Classification of Pollutants
Source
Natural
Activity
Stability
Primary
Physical Form
Chemical Nature
Inorganic
Organic
Biostability
Biodegradable
Non-biodegradable*
Life
Non-persistent
Persistent
Toxic Effect
Non-threshold
Threshold
* Biomagnifiable
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Anthropogenic
Secondary
Hazardous substances
Any substance or preparation which by reason
of its chemical or physical properties, or
handling, is liable to cause harm to humanbeings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property or the environment. [EP
Act, 1986]
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Attributes of Pollutants
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Attributes of Pollutants
Threshold Levels
Minimal level beyond which harmful effects become evident.
Persistence
Long stay in the environment in unchanged condition, Most of
the persistent pollutants (except metals) are human made.
Synergism
Certain combinations of pollutants may be more harmful than
individual pollutants.
Uranium miners who smoke tobacco have unusually high
incidence of lung cancer.
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HARMFUL EFFECT
NON-THRESHOLD
NON-THRESHOLD
DOSAGE
Non-Persistent Pollutants
Such pollutants do not remain in the environment for
long time. Most of these are biodegradable. Others
decompose or get converted to inert products as a
result of chemical reactions.
Biodegradable Wastes- Garbage, food industry waste,
sewage, animal waste, farm waste, etc.
Non-biodegradable- These are essentially synthetic
substances. Most of these break down as a result of
chemical oxidation or hydrolysis. Organophosphates
are typical examples.
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Persistence
Some pollutants remain dangerous indefinitely-Beryllium,
Lead, Mercury
Pesticides- persistence is defined as time needed for the
pesticide level to reduce to less than 25% of the original.
Inorganic-Hg
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Chlordane
5 years
DDT
4 years
Dieldrin
3 years
Picloram
1.5 years
2,4,5-T
5 months
2,4-D
1 month
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Long-distance Movement of
Pollutants
Radioactive fall out from atmospheric nuclear tests
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Physically destructive1.
2.
3.
Biologically destructive1.
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What is Hazardous ?
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Measurement of
Pollution
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Measurement of Pollution
A persistent problem1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Low concentration
Synergistic effects
Point to point variation
Variation with time
Secondary pollutants
Fractional Concentrations
Symbol
Definition
ppm
10-6
pphm
10-8
ppb
10-9
ppt
10-12
Fraction
nitrate in smog
O
C
0.001 ppm HF in air
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NO2
Extent of Pollution
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Abatement/Control of Pollution
Abate:
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1856
1895
1957-1990
Quantity:
5 million chemicals
5300 are commercially important
Toxicity:
Chemical
Methanol
PCB
Order of Production
9th
1st
No rank
Persistence:
Half life > 12 months
Biomagnifiable:
Carbon compounds are lipophilic
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Toxicity
2nd
Bioaccumulation/Bio-magnification:
Bioaccumulation of Ca137 , a fission product,
increases in the following order: Lichens < Reindeer
< Humans (Laps, Eskimos- Body burden is 10 times
greater than the people of temperate climates )
Cases of cancer after 15 to 20 years of exposure
Induction of birth defects- Mutation, Teratogenesis
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Urbanization
World
1952 AD
29%
1975 AD
39%
2000 AD
50%
India
2000 AD
33%
1975
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Kolkatta
85
129
Delhi
72
167
Chennai
78
117
Mumbai
93
170
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Population Growth
Birth
Death
Net Growth
Trends of Urbanization
Year
1920
1960
2000
2050
Urban Population
12% of total
25% of total
45% of total
?
Requirement/Waste Production
(Community of 10 lakh people)
Water
565 tonnes
Food
1800 tonnes
Fuel
8600 tonnes
Sewage 450 tonnes(110 tonnes solids)
Refuse 1800 tonnes
Air pollutants 860 tonnes
Growing Population
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Growing Population
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Growing Population
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Growing Population
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100
600
Taiwan
1000
Israel
Jordan
etc.
2000
Population growth
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AGRICULTURE
Nitrogenous fertilizers
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Nitrate in ppm
Bihar
21.0
Gujarat
55.1
Hills
9.0
Haryana
99.5
Maharashtra
52.0
M.P.
50.0
U.P.
23.0 37.0
ISI/WHO
45
Particulate
organic-P
Soluble
organic-P
Soluble orthophosphate,
PO4
Inorganic-P
in sediments
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Eutrophication
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Eutrophication
Greek Words:
Oligo
Few
Trophien To nourish
Oligotrophic
Few nutrients
MesoIntermediate
Eu Well
Eutrophic Highly productive
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H
C
Cl
Cl
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C
Cl
Cl
Cl
Industrial Pollution
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Transport of Pollutants
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Receptors
Water
Pollution
Sources
WATER
ENVIRONMENT
Effluents
Water
exposure
HYDROLOGY
Effluents
(mass/time)
Effluents
Standards
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Water
quality
models
Concentration
(mass/volume of
water over some
average time)
Water
Quality
Standards
Environmental
stress
quantitation
Exposure (to
receiving water
concentration
over a period of
time)
Ingestion,
Contact
Aesthetics, Materials
Air
Pollution
Sources
Receptors
Meteorology
Sun light
AIR
ENVIRONMENT
Air
exposure
Emissions
Emissions
(mass/time)
Emission
Standards
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Air
quality
models
Concentration
(mass/volume of
air over some
average time)
Air Quality
Standards
Environmental
stress
quantitation
Exposure (to
receiving water
concentration
over a period of
time)
Inhalation,
Contact
Materials, Aesthetics
DIRECT RADIATION
DEPOSITION
PERSISTENT
POLLUTANTS
AIR
DEPOSITION
INHALATION
CROPS AND
PLANTS
SOIL
ANIMALS
INGESTION
DIRECT
RADIATION
MAN
INGESTION
INHALATION
DIRECT RADIATION
PERSISTENT
POLLUTANTS
SURFACE OR
GROUND
WATER
AQUATIC
PLANTS
INGESTION
AQUATIC
ANIMALS
INGESTION
LAND
PLANTS
INGESTION
LAND
ANIMALS
INGESTION
MAN
SOIL
INGESTION
Toxic Substances
Ingest
Blood cells
Feces
Urine
Secretion
Exhaled Air
Inhale
Skin
Absorption
Excretion
Fat
Tissue
Organs
Storage
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Effects of Air/Water
Pollutants
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Effects of Pollution:
Physical
Chemical
Biological
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Effects
Physical Green house effect due to carbon dioxide, and other
gases. Loss of visibility due to particulates
Chemical Acid rain, Photochemical Smog, Loss of ozone layer
Biological Health hazard to humans, Loss of leaves, Plague of
marble
SO2 Affects mucus membrane, causes coughing, irritation of
respiratory tract.
NOx NO2 affects lungs, causes irritation, affects respiratory
tract
Global effects on climate and / or local / regional effects due to
toxicity of air pollutants.
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Effects on Materials
Corrosion, deterioration of building materials
Effects on Vegetation:
Leaf injury, growth retardation
Complex changes in plant ecosystem
Algal bloom, eutrophication
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Global Effects:
Green-house effect, ozone hole, changes in
biogeochemical cycles
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Effects
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Effects on Materials
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Effects on Vegetation
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Pollutant
Effect
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Sulphur dioxide
0.3 0.5, several days
Bleached spots, chlorosis, chronic injury to spinach
and other leafy vegetables
Oxides of nitrogen
0.25, 8 months
Increased abscission and reduced yield in citrus
plants
0.5 10.0, 2 days Suppressed growth of tomato
3 5, 21 hours
Spots of mild necrosis on cotton and bean plants
25, 1 hour
Acute leaf injury
Ozone
0.03, 8 hour
Fleck on upper surface, necrosis and bleaching
Fluoride
0.001, 7 21 days
Necrosis of leaf tip, grape is particularly susceptible
Ethylene
0.1, several hours &
Epinasty, leaf abscission, flower dropping
0.05,
several days
Photochemical smog
0.01 0.05, a few hours Glazing or bronzing of leaf underside, damage to
(PAN)
sensitive plants, young leaves more susceptible
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Smoky cooking and heating fires may cause more ill health effects
than any other source of indoor air pollution except tobacco
smoking. Some 2.5 billion people, mainly women and children,
spend hours each day in poorly ventilated kitchens and living
spaces where carbon monoxide, particulates, and cancer-causing
hydrocarbons often reach dangerous levels.
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Radioisotope
Half-life
Environmental Effect
Cesium-137
30 years
Accumulates in soft
tissues, affects whole
body
Iodine-131
8 days
Accumulates in
thyroid
Krypton-85
10.4 years
Chemically inert
Strontium90
25 years
Accumulates in bones,
may cause leukemia
PROTOZOA
ALGAE
MOLLUSCS
C R U S TAC EAN S
FISH
MAN
10-1
10
102
103
104
105
106
107
DOSE (RADS.)
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Benzene
Cadmium
Carbon tetrachloride
Nickel
Chloroform
Tetrachloroethylene
Chromium
Toluene
Cyanides
Trichloroethane
Dichloromethane
Trichloroethylene
Lead
Xylene(s)
Mercury
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Particle size, m
Description
Mechanism
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Greater than 10
2 10
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Aeroallergenes Substances like lead accumulate in blood, nervous and renal systems and cause
weakness, headache, lassitude, constipation, blue-line along gums.
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Conc.,
Accompanied by
Exposure Time
Effect
m/cu m
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750
715 m SO2/ cu m
24 hr average
Increased illness
300
630 m SO2/ cu m
24 hr average
Worsening of chronic bronchitis
200
250 m SO2/ cu m
24 hr average
Increased absence if industrial workers
100-130
120 m SO2/ cu m
Annual mean
Respiratory disease in children
100
30 mg SO2/ cu m/month Annual geom. mean
Increased death for those beyond 50 years
80-100
30 mg SO2/ cu m/month 2 year geom. mean Increased death for those beyond 50-70years
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Level, %
Effect
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Less than 1
1.0 2.0
2.0 5.0
5.0 16.0
16.0 20.0
20.0 30.0
30.0 40.0
40.0 50.0
50.0 60.0
60.0 80.0
No apparent effect
Change in behavioral performance
Effects on central nervous system impairment of time interval discriminations,
visual acuity, brightness discrimination, other psychomotor functions
Damage to cardiac and pulmonary functions
Fatigue
Nausea, Headache
Severe headache, Nausea and Vomiting, Dizziness
Slurring of speech, Coma
Convulsions, Coma
Respiratory failure, Death
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Concentration, ppm
Exposure time
Effects
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0.06
No effect
0.15 0.25
1 4 days
Cardio-respiratory response
1.0 2.0
3 10 months
Cardio-respiratory response
2.0 5.0
Tightness in chest
5.0
1 hour
Severe distress, nose-bleeding
Greater than 20
Eye irritation, digestive tract damage
400 500
Dangerous
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Concentration, ppm
Exposure
Effect
___________________________________________________________________________________________
0.061 0.1
2 3 years
Increase in acute respiratory disease
Upto 0.1
6 months
Increase in acute bronchitis in school children
0.12
<24 hours
Human olfactory threshold
5
10 min
Increase in air way resistance
90
30 min
Pulmonary edema
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Concentration, ppm
Exposure
Effect
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Ozone
0.1 1.0
1.0 3.0
>2.0
9.0
1 hour
2 hours
2 hours
-
Total Oxidants
0.1
0.05 0.06
0.03 0.3
Instantaneous
1 hour
1 hour
Eye irritation
Aggravation of asthma
Impaired performance of athletes
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Cancer
Cancer rates have been rising in most industrialized
countries, and cancer is now the second leading killer in
USA, killing about 500,000 people annually. According to
American Cancer Society, 1 in 2 males and 1 in 3 females
in USA will have some form of cancer in their lifetime.
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Tobacco
30
Alcohol
Diet
35
Occupation
Food additives
<1
Pollution
Industrial products
<1
13
TOTAL
100
(Source: Data from R.Doll and R.Peto, Avoidable Risks of Cancer in the U.S., Journal of the
National Cancer Institute 66 [1981]: 1191-1308)
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Carcinogens
Substances that cause cancer- invasive, out of
control cell growth that result in malignant tumors.
Some experts blame synthetic chemicals in our
food and environment for this problem. Where as
some put the blame on lifestyle (smoking,
sunbathing, alcohol).
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Benzene
Carbon tetrachloride
Chloroform
Trichloroethylene
Chromium (VI) oxide
Chromates and dichromates
Benzidine
Sec-butyl bromide (2-bromobutane)
Tert-butyl bromide (2-bromo-2-methylpropane)
Diazomethane
Ethylene dibromide (1, 2-dibromoethane)
Ethylene dibromide (1, 2-dibromoethane)
Hydrazine
Isobutyl bromide (1-bromo-1-methylpropane)
Methyl iodide (iodomethane)
Naphthylamine (1-aminonapthalene)
Naphthylamine (2-aminonapthalene)
Semicarbazide hydrochloride
1, 1, 2-trichloroethane
Urethane (Ethyl carbamate)
Vinyl chloride
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Acetic Acid
Acetic anhydride
Acetonitrile
Formic acid
Hexane
Methylene chloride
(Dichloromethane)
Acetone
Alcohols
Diethylether (Ether)
Dymethylformamide
Dimethyl sulfoxide
Esters
Ethylene glycol
Petroleum ether
Pyridine
Tetrahydrofuran
Toluene
Water
Xylenes
Cause -
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Emphysema
Cause -
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Bronchial Asthma
A chromic disorder, marked by periodic episodes of wheezing and
difficulty breathing.
During such attacks passage way that carry air to the lungs
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Asphyxiants
Chemicals that exclude oxygen or interfere with the oxygen
uptake and distribution. These are of two types- passive and
active.
Passive Asphyxiants Nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide.
These are inert, exclude oxygen by filling enclosed spaces
like- mines, unused wells, caves, farm soils.
Active Asphyxiants Carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide,
hydrogen sulphide, aniline. These are active and react with
blood or lung tissue to prevent oxygen uptake. These are toxic
even in low concentrations and their effects are irreversible.
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Sensitizers or Allergens
These activate the immune system. Some act as direct antigens and some
after binding to another molecule and changing their structure or chemistry.
Formaldehyde is a good example. It is both directly and indirectly
allergenic. People exposed to formaldehyde in plastics, wood products,
glue, insulation, fabrics, etc. become hypersensitive to formaldehyde and
several other materials. This is called sick house syndrome.
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Neurotoxins
These are special metabolic poisons, that specifically attack
nerve cells (neurons).
Heavy metals Hg, Pb, kill nerve cells and cause permanent
neurological damage.
Anesthetics Ether, chloroform, halothane, etc., and
chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT, Dieldrin, Aldrin) disrupt cell
membranes necessary for nerve action.
Organophosphates (Malathion, Parathion), and carbamates
(carbaryl, zeneb, maneb) inhibit acetylcholinesterase, an
enzyme that regulates signal transmission between nerve cells
and the tissues and organs they innervate.
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Mutagens
These are chemicals and radiation that damage
genetic material (DNA) in cells. This can lead to birth
defects if the damage occurs during embryonic or
fetal growth. Later in life, genetic damage may
trigger neopalstic (tumor) growth. When damage
occurs in reproductive cells, the defect can be passed
on to future generations. Cells have repair mechanism
to detect and repair damaged genetic material, but
some changes may be hidden, and the repair process
itself can be flawed. There is no threshold for
exposure to mutagens. Any exposure has some
possibilities of causing damage.
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Teratogens
These are chemicals or other factors that specially
cause abnormalities during embryonic growth and
development. Some compounds that are not
otherwise harmful may cause tragic problems in these
sensitive stages of life.
Thalidomide caused birth defects and fetal alcohol
syndrome are typical examples teratogenic problems.
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Thalidomide
Thalidomide (marketed under trade name Cantergan) was
the most popular sleeping pill in Europe during 1970s. It
seemed to have no unwanted effect and was sold without
prescription. When used by pregnant women, however, it
caused abnormal fetal development resulting in
phecomelia (seal-like-limbs), in which there is a hand or
foot but no arm or leg. There is evidence that taking a
single pill of thalidomide during the first week of
pregnancy is sufficient to cause tragic birth defects.
Altogether at least 12,000 children were affected before
this drug was withdrawn from the market.
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Development of this babys arms and legs was blocked when its mother took the
sedative thalidomide early in her pregnancy. Although the drug has been banned in
Europe and North America for the past twenty years, it is still used to treat leprosy in
some tropical countries. Unfortunately, some of this potent teratogen is used by
pregnant women who are unaware of its tragic side effects.
A colt born in Ukraine after the Chernobyl accident has deformed legs and
even extra legs and hooves.
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Acknowledgement
To all authors whose work has been
provided
critical
improvement
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suggestions
for
Thanks..