Chapter 1

1.3 Scalar and Vector Quantities

Understanding Scalar and Vector

Quantities

1. A scalar quantity is a quantity which

has only magnitude or size.
Mass = 58 kg

Understanding Scalar and Vector

Quantities

2. A vector quantity has both

magnitude/size and direction.

Velocity = 900 km/h

down south.

Understanding Scalar and Vector

Quantities

3 When we say that the temperature of a room is 28C,

or a bottle contains 500 cm3 of milk, we are dealing with
scalar quantities. On the other hand, a force of 120 N
acting downwards is a vector quantity.

120N

Understanding Scalar and Vector

Quantities

4. Time, temperature, mass, volume, distance,

density and power are examples of scalar
quantities. These quantities can be added using
simple mathematical rules.

45 cm3

40W

Understanding Scalar and Vector

Quantities

5. Force, velocity, displacement, acceleration and

momentum are vector quantities.
Force

Displacement,
AC

Understanding Scalar and Vector

Quantities

5. Force, velocity, displacement, acceleration and

momentum are vector quantities. To find a
resultant vector, all vector quantities are either
added or subtracted taking into account the
magnitude and direction of the individual vector.

Chapter 1
1.4 Measurements

Understanding Measurements

Nature of Measurement
1 Measurements are trials to determine the true value
of a particular physical quantity.

Understanding Measurements

2 The difference between the true value of a

quantity and the value obtained in measurement
is the error.
Actual mass = 60 kg
Weighing machine = 59 kg
Error = 60 - 59 = 1kg

Understanding Measurements

Nature of Measurement
3 No measurement can be absolutely accurate;
there will be some sort of error in a measurement.
Thickness of book

1.5 cm

1.518 cm
1.52 cm

Errors in Measurement

1. There are two main types of errors.

(a)
Systematic errors
(b)
Random errors

Errors in Measurement

Systematic Errors
1 Systematic errors are cumulative errors
that can be compensated for, if the errors
are known.

Errors in Measurement

Systematic Errors
2 Systematic errors in measurement result from
(a) an incorrect position of the zero point, or known as
zero error, and

Errors in Measurement

Systematic Errors
2 Systematic errors in measurement result from
(a) an incorrect position of the zero point, or known as
zero error, and
(b) an incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument.

Errors in Measurement

3 Systematic errors always occur (with

the same value) when we continue to use
the instrument in the same way.

Errors in Measurement

4 A zero error arises when the measuring

instrument does not start from exactly zero.

Errors in Measurement

5 Zero errors are consistently present in

every reading of a measurement so that the
results obtained may be precise but lack in
accuracy.

Errors in Measurement

6. Systematic errors cannot be eliminated by repeating

the measurements and averaging out the results. It only
can be eliminated or corrected if the measuring
instruments are calibrated or adjusted frequently.

Errors in Measurement

Random Errors

1 Random errors occurs due to mistakes made when

making measurement either through incorrect positioning
of the eye or the instrument. It will produce a different
error every time you repeat the experiment. They may
vary from observation to observation.
You measure the mass of a ring three times using the
same balance and get slightly different values: 17.46 g,
17.42 g, 17.44 g

Errors in Measurement

Random Errors

2. Random errors can be minimised by repeating the

measurements several times and taking the average or
mean value of the readings.
You measure the mass of a ring three times using the
same balance and get slightly different values: 17.46 g,
17.42 g, 17.44 g
17.46 17.42 17.44
17.44 g
Average/mean =
3

Errors in Measurement

Random Errors
3. A parallax error is an error caused by incorrect
positioning of the eye when reading a measurement.
Error = + 0.2ml
Error = + 0.1ml
Error = - 0.1ml

Errors in Measurement

Random Errors
4. If he repeats his reading several times, and takes the
average of the results, he will end up with an answer that
is closer to the true value; but repeating measurements
does nothing at all for the first observer.

Errors in Measurement

Random Errors
5 (a) To avoid parallax errors, the position of the eye
must be in line with the reading to be taken, as in position
C.

Errors in Measurement

5 (b) To overcome parallax

errors in instruments with a
scale and pointer, e.g. an
ammeter, often have a mirror
behind the pointer. The correct
reading is obtained by making
sure that that the eye is exactly
in front of the pointer, so that
the reflection of the pointer in
the mirror is behind it (refer
Figure 1.3).

Errors in Measurement

5 (b)

Eye

Eye

Consistency, Accuracy and

Consistency/Precision
Sensitivity
1 The consistency of a measuring instrument is its
ability to register the same reading when a measurement
is repeated.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision
2 A set of readings from identical instruments will have
a small relative deviation or no deviation from the mean
value.

High consistency => Small deviation from the mean value

Big deviation: 54kg, 56kg, 57kg
Small deviation: 54kg, 54kg, 55kgPrecise

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision
3 A deviation is the difference between a measured
value and its mean value or the average value.
Average reading of diameter = 3.24 cm
One of the reading = 3.26 cm
Deviation = 3.26 3.24 = 0.02 cm

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision
4 Relative deviation is defined by the
formula below.
Relative deviation =

Average deviation
Average value

x 100%

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision

Example 1
The diameter of an object was measured 5 times using vernier caliper.
The results are 3.14 cm, 3.15 cm, 3.12 cm, 3.09 cm and 3.05 cm.
Calculate the relative deviation.

3.14 3.15 3.12 3.09 3.05

Average diameter =
5
= 3.11 cm

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity
Example 1:
Diameter/cm
Deviation/cm
3.14

(3.14 3.11) cm = 0.03 cm

3.15

(3.15 3.11) cm = 0.04 cm

3.12

(3.12 3.11) cm = 0.01 cm

3.09

(3.09 3.11) cm = | 0.02 cm| =

0.02 cm
(3.05 3.11) cm = | 0.06 cm| =
0.06 cm

3.05

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Example 1:
0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.06
Mean deviation =
5
Average deviation
Relative deviation =
x 100%
Average value

0.03
3.11

= 0.96%

x 100%

= 0.03 cm

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision

5 The consistency of a measuring instrument can be

improved by:
(a) eliminating parallax errors during measurement.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision

5 The consistency of a measuring instrument can be

improved by:
(b) exercising greater care and effort when taking
readings.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Consistency/Precision

5 The consistency of a measuring instrument can be

improved by:
(c) using an instrument which is not defective.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Accuracy
1 Accuracy is the degree to which a
measurement represents the actual value.
Gravity = 9.81 ms-2
Experimental value
A = 9.76 ms-2
B = 9.62 ms-2

9.62

9.76 9.81

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Accuracy
2 An accurate instrument is able to give
readings close to or almost equal to the actual
value of a quantity.
9.62

9.76 9.81
Closer

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Accuracy
3 An instrument with 100% accuracy does not
exist.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Accuracy
4 The error is the difference between the
measured value and the actual or true value
9.62

A.9.76 9.81
Error A = 0.05

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

Accuracy
5 The level of accuracy is related to the relative
error which is defined as the ratio of the error to
the actual value.
error value
Relative error =
actual value x 100%
B.9.62 A.9.76 9.81
Error A = 0.05
Error B = 0.19

R. Error A =

0.05
x100%
9.81

R. Error B =

0.19
x100% =1.9%
9.81

=0.5%

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity

6 A measured value with a very small error has a high

accuracy. If the relative error is of a small value, the level
of accuracy is high and vice versa.
Relative error Accuracy
R. Error A =

0.05
x100%
9.81

R. Error B =

0.19
x100% =1.9%
9.81

=0.5%

Accuracy
high

Consistency, Accuracy and

Accuracy
Sensitivity

7 How to improve the accuracy of a measurement?

(a) Repeated readings are taken and the average value is
calculated.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Accuracy
Sensitivity

7 How to improve the accuracy of a

measurement?
(b) Avoid parallax errors,

Consistency, Accuracy and

Accuracy
Sensitivity

7 How to improve the accuracy of a

measurement?
(c) Avoid zero errors.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Accuracy
Sensitivity
7 How to improve the accuracy of a measurement?

(d) Use measuring instruments with a higher accuracy.

For example, a vernier caliper is more accurate than a
ruler.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity
Sensitivity

1 The sensitivity of a measuring instrument is its ability

to detect quickly a small change in the value of a
measurement.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity
Sensitivity

2 A measuring instrument that has a scale with

smaller divisions is more sensitive.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity
Sensitivity

3 As an example, the length of a piece of wire is

measured with rulers A and B which have scales
graduated in intervals of 0.1 cm and 0.5 cm respectively,
as shown in Figure 1.5. Which of the rulers is more
sensitive?

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity
Sensitivity

3 Results:
Ruler A: Length = 4.8 cm
Ruler B: Length = 4.5 cm
Ruler A is more sensitive as it can measure to an accuracy
of 0.1 cm compared to 0.5 cm for ruler B

Consistency, Accuracy and

4 In addition to the size of the divisions on the scale of
Sensitivity

the instrument, the design of the instrument has an effect

on the sensitivity of the instrument. For example, a
thermometer has a higher sensitivity if it can detect small
temperature variations. A thermometer with a narrow
capillary and a thin-walled bulb has a higher sensitivity.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity
Comparisons between Consistency, Accuracy,
and Sensitivity

1 The drawings in Figure 1.5, which show the

distribution of gunshots fired at a target board, serve to
illustrate the meaning of consistency and accuracy.

Consistency, Accuracy and

2 A consistent measuring instrument is not necessarily
Sensitivity

accurate. For example, a measurement with a metre rule is

consistent but not accurate due to end errors. In this
respect, this type of instrument gives readings which,
however, do not represent the true value of the measured
quantity.

Consistency, Accuracy and

Sensitivity
3 A sensitive measuring instrument too, may not
be accurate or consistent. This is due to external
variations which cause variations in the readings.