DCE 5900

RESEARCH
METHOD

NOTES FOR DISCUSSION

ONLY
PROF. TURIMAN SUANDI
019-395 2481
turiman55@gmail.com

SAJJAD AHMAD
011-2810 6011
sajjaadahmad@gmail.com

Understanding Research

How to do Research

Researc
h

is about addressing
an issue or asking
& answering a
question or solving
a problem

Topic:
what are you
researching?
Clinical
Psychological

the effect of a herb on performance.

factors affecting work-place
satisfaction.

Behavioral

how can we reduce truancy at this

school?

Economic

characterize the productivity of new

immigrants.

Social

develop risk-management procedures

at a gym.

Finding a good
question/problem
have a good supervisor, good colleagues,
&/or knowledge or practical experience of
& affinity for a topic.
read journal articles to find out what's
already known.
topics for future research.

Novelty:
creating new or reviewing
published info?

Most research projects are

original investigations.
Obtain new data or information
about a phenomenon

Methods:
quantitative or
qualitative?

With quantitative methods

Gather data with an instrument,
such as a structured questionnaire.

Derive measures or variables from the

data,
investigate relationships among the variables

Some think by testing hypotheses

With qualitative methods

Gather information or themes
from texts, conversations or loosely
structured interviews, then tell a coherent
story.
Software such as Nvivo

Open-ended in nature

allows for more flexibility & serendipity in

identifying factors & practical strategies

The direction of the research

may change mid-stream

Formal procedures enhance

trustworthiness of the information.
Triangulation
aim for congruence of info from various
sources.
Member checking or respondent validation
the subjects check the researchers analysis.
Peer debriefing
colleagues or experts check the analysis.

Hybrid or mixed method

analyze a sample
of cases
qualitatively &
quantitatively

Utility:
pure or applied?
Pure, basic, theoretical or academic
projects
the aim is to understand the cause or
mechanism of a phenomenon.

Applied or practical projects

impact directly on health, wealth, or culture
(art, recreation), or on development of a
method.

In summary

A given research project is a

point in multidimensional
space.
Some are popular
Some are less popular,
but worth visiting.

THE RESEARCH
PROCESS

The Research Process

1. Selection of topic
2. Reviewing the literature
3. Development of theoretical & conceptual
frameworks
4. Clarification of research question/hypothesis
5. Research design
6. Data collection
7. Data analysis
8. Drawing conclusions

THE RESEARCH
PROCESS
1. Selection of topic

6. Data collection

7. Data analysis

2. Reviewing the
literature

5. Research design

8. Drawing
conclusions

3. Development of
theoretical &
conceptual
frameworks

4. Clarification of
research
question/hypothesis

SELECTION OF TOPIC
A crucial stage
an inappropriate topic or question will often lead to irretrievable
difficulties later in the research

It is unlikely to develop a final question & set of

objectives at this stage of the research process
stages 2 & 3 are important in developing & assessing the question
more fully

REVIEWING THE
LITERATURE
A literature review essentially consists of critically reading,
evaluating & organising existing literature on the topic
to assess the state of knowledge in the area

During this stage, the aim is to become an expert in the field of

research.
Generally done alongside the development of the theoretical &
conceptual frameworks
stage 3 of the research process

DEVELOPMENT OF
THEORETICAL & RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK
Read the literature & continually develop & refine the
theoretical & conceptual frameworks.
The theoretical framework
refers to the underlying theoretical approach to adopt to underpin the study

The conceptual framework

defines & organises the concepts important within the study

CLARIFICATION OF THE
RESEARCH QUESTION
Initial research questions are chosen,
investigated & often rejected for a number of
reasons,
For example:
Question lacks sufficient focus
Conceptual framework has identified problems in either
defining &/or measuring the appropriate concepts
Too many moderating or intervening variables
The project is unfeasible in terms of complexity, access,
facilities or resources

RESEARCH DESIGN
Data to collect to answer this question?
Best way to collect the data?
Overall research design should be used?
a cross-sectional, experimental or longitudinal design?

Need to collect primary or secondary data?

Best methods, for example interviews, questionnaire surveys & so on, to
collect the primary data?

Who should participate in the research?

How to gain access to them?
Exact procedures that to adopt in the data collection
to ensure reliability & validity?
Any ethical issues associated with the research?

DATA COLLECTION

Consider
which methodology
to choose
which methods to
utilise

DATA ANALYSIS &

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
The data collected in stage 6 needs to be
analysed
to provide answers to your research question

In the discussion of the results, reference

should also be made back to the literature
reviewed in stage 2
How do the findings add to this literature?
Do they support the literature?
If not, what are the possible reasons why?

DRAWING
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions should relate back to the focused research
question
Evaluate how successful in achieving the research
objectives, & highlight the strengths & weaknesses of
the research
Make recommendations for further research

SUMMARY
Research is not just about the collection of
data.
Data collection is important, but it is simply part of a
wider process the research process.

The research process follows 8 steps:

selection of topic, reviewing the literature, developing
your theoretical & conceptual frameworks, clarifying
your research question, developing a research design,
collecting data, analysing data, & drawing conclusions

Formulating the
Research Problem

To find a general problem

area
Ask ourselves what we dont know that we would like to know.
Identify research being done at our institutions
Read review papers & textbooks
Read current research
Look for unanswered questions, controversial issues, theories to
be tested, or practices to be refined or improved

Write down all ideas & hunches that come to us

when reading, studying, listening to lectures, etc.
With what in our field are we dissatisfied?
Analyze, challenge, & criticize popular beliefs & practices in your
field
What procedures or practices in our field interest us?

Use hunches, intuition, tenacity challenge

authority non-scientific methods of problem
solving!

Criteria for
selecting a
research
problem

Interest
Are we interested in the problem area,
specific problem, & potential solution?
Does it relate to our background? To our
career interest?
Does it turn you on?
Shall we learn useful skills from pursuing
it?

Theoretical value
Does the problem fill a gap in the literature?
Will others recognize its importance?
Will it contribute to advancement in our field?
Does it improve the state of the art?
Is it publishable?

Practical value
Will the solution to the problem improve
educational practice?
Are the practitioners likely to be interested in the
results?
Will education be changed by the outcome?
Will own educational practices be likely to change
as a result?

Workability
Is the contemplated study within the limits & range of your
resources & time constraints?
Shall we have access to the necessary sample in the numbers
required?
Is there reason to believe we can come up with an answer to
the problem?
Is the required methodology manageable & understandable?
Can we attack it without prejudice?

Critical mass
Is the problem of sufficient magnitude & scope
to fulfill the requirement that has motivated the study in
the first place?

Are there enough variables?

Enough potential results?
Enough to write about?

Do not jump into a computer search as we

investigate a new problem or area.
First, we need a broad overview & background of
the problem we want to address.
This is hard to get from individual articles.

Second, our search is likely to be too broad if our

problem is not specific enough.
Therefore, start slowly. Unless weve read a lot in an area, a
computer search of individual articles will prove more
frustrating than rewarding initially

Writing the problem

statement
State the ideal situation
What should?

State the actual situation

However, what is?

State the gap

Issues, problems that need to be solved

Sate the study

This research will . . .

Writing Problem Statements

Tells what will be (or was)

done
Identifies variables &
relationships to be
studied

Revising & narrowing

the problem statement
Review primary sources in the
literature

Identify primary sources

Read & record the literature
Focus should be on identifying questions that
need to be answered
theoretically & practically

Revising & narrowing

the problem statement
Review primary sources in the
literature
Make a list of research questions
Provide a rationale for the problem
Identify variables to be studied
Rewrite the problem statement

Variables

Any characteristic or
phenomenon that can
vary (or change) across
organisms, situations,
or environments

Types of Variables
Variable

Key
Characteristic

Example

Independent
Eating apples (none
Presumed cause
or one per day)
(Situational)
Dependent
(Response)

Measured
Number of doctor
outcome (effect) visits for colds or flu

Attribute
(Subject)

Subject
characteristic

Male vs. female

Extraneous
(Mediating)

Controlled
influence

Prior health, other

foods

Examples of Research Hypotheses

If children are taught to read via whole language,

then their reading comprehension will be higher.
If children watch 3 or more hours of TV per day, then
their behavior on the playground will become more
aggressive.
If children learn in small cooperative groups, then
their social interactions will be more positive.

Form of Research Hypotheses

IF, THEN: If young children take piano lessons,
then they will have higher math aptitude 10
years later.
STATEMENT: Young children who take piano
lessons will have higher math aptitude 10 years
later.
QUESTION: Will young children who take piano
lessons have higher math aptitude 10 years
later?

Examples
RESEARCH: If children watch violent TV, then they will
act more aggressively at recess.
ALTERNATIVE: Children prone to aggression simply
watch more violent TV.
NULL: In a population of school-age children there is
no relationship between TV violence & aggressive
behavior.

Reviewing the Literature

What is LR?
A good literature review..
.. is a synthesis of available
research
.. is a critical evaluation
.. has appropriate breadth and
depth
.. has clarity and conciseness
.. uses rigorous and consistent
methods

A poor literature
review is..
..an annotated
bibliography
.. confined to
description
.. narrow and shallow
.. confusing and
longwinded
.. constructed in an
arbitrary way

the purpose of a review

Generally, is to analyze
critically a segment of a
published body of knowledge
through summary, classification, &
comparison of prior research
studies, reviews of literature, &
theoretical articles

Why write LR?

Rationalizing the significance of the problem;
Enhancing & acquiring the subject vocabulary;
Understanding the structure of the subject;
Relating ideas & theory to applications;
Identifying methodologies & techniques that have been used;
Placing the research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art
developments.

Before writing the literature

review?
Introduction
Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review,
such as the central theme or organizational pattern

Body
Contains your discussion of sources & is organized
either chronologically, thematically, or
methodologically

Conclusions/Recommendations

Discuss what we have drawn from reviewing literature

so far.
Where might the discussion proceed?

Before writing the literature

review?
The introduction
should provide the reader with the scale & structure of our review. It serves
as a kind of map.

The body of the review

Depends on how you have organized our key points.
Literature reviews at postgraduate level should be evaluative & not merely
descriptive.
For example possible reasons for similarities or differences between studies
are considered rather than a mere identification of them.

The conclusion of the review

needs to sum up the main findings of your research into the literature
The findings can be related to the aims of the study you are proposing to do.
The reader is thus provided with a coherent background to the current study

Before writing the literature

review
Organizing the body
Once the basic categories are in place, then we must consider how we will
present the sources themselves within the body of your paper.
Create an organizational method to focus this section even further.
To help you come up with an overall organizational framework for your review,
consider the six typical ways of organizing the sources into a review:
Chronological
By publication
By trend
Thematic
Methodological
Questions for Further Research

4 stages of the literature review

Problem formulation
which topic or field is being examined & what are its
component issues?

Literature search
finding materials relevant to the subject being explored

Data evaluation
determining which literature makes a significant contribution
to the understanding of the topic

Analysis & interpretation

discussing the findings & conclusions of pertinent literature

What should we write?

accepted facts in the area
popular opinion
main variables
relationship between concepts & variables
shortcomings in the existing findings
limitations in the methods used in the existing findings
relevance of your research
suggestions for further research in the area

Final checklist
Have I fulfilled the purpose of the literature
review?
Is it written at a level appropriate to its audience?
Are its facts correct?
Is all the information included relevant?
Are the layout & presentation easy on the eye?

Is the language clear, concise & academic?

Does the abstract summarize the entire review?
Does the introduction adequately introduce the topic?
Is the body organized logically?
Does the conclusion interpret, analyze & evaluate?

Are the recommendations reasonable?

Does the table of contents correspond with the actual
contents? Are page numbers correct?
Have I acknowledged all sources of information through
correct referencing?
Have I checked spelling, grammar & punctuation?
Have I carefully proof-read the final draft?

How to review?
The whole process of reviewing
includes:
a. Searching for literature
b. Sorting & prioritizing the retrieved
literature
c. Analytical reading of papers
d. Evaluative reading of papers
e. Comparison across studies
f. Organizing the content
g. Writing the review

Writing the Research

Objectives

Why have a question?

It guides our research

It allows us to seek what others have
written
It allows us to relate the needs of our
learners

to techniques for analyzing where they are & what

they need

What makes a good question?

Is it interesting?
Is it researchable?
Is it significant?
Is it manageable?

Samples:
Are they good questions?
Does the use of rewards increase students fluency in
writing?
Does the use of pictures influence student motivation
to learn chemistry?
Do students from single parent families write more
than children from intact families?
Does peer editing increase students abilities to be on
time?

Do video clips of Civil War documentaries

influence students long term memory of facts?
Does a teachers appearance increase students
reading ability?
Do choices influence the quality of projects in a
5th grade social studies class?
Do games improve 3rd grade students
motivation & math achievement?

Do children who have dogs have higher IQs than

children who do not have dogs?
Does intake (the opportunity to eat & drink while
learning) increase students attention span?
Do field trips to the different regions of the state
influence childrens attendance?
Does paying students for good behavior improve
behavior?

Preparing the
Research Design

Research Design
The research design is the
master plan specifying
the methods & procedures
for collecting & analyzing
the needed information.

Types of Research Design

Three traditional categories of
research design
Exploratory
Descriptive
Causal

The choice of the most appropriate

design depends largely on
the objectives of the research &
how much is known about the problem & these
objectives

Basic Research Objectives

& Research Design
Exploratory

To gain background information

To define terms
To clarify problems
To develop hypotheses
To establish research priorities
To develop questions to be
answered

Descriptive
To describe & measure phenomena at a
point in time

Causal

To
To
To
To

determine causality
test hypotheses
make if-then statements,
answer questions

Exploratory Research
most commonly unstructured, informal
research
that is undertaken to gain background
information about the general nature of the
research problem

usually conducted when the researcher

does not know much about the problem
needs additional information or desires new or
more recent information

Exploratory Research
used in a number of
situations

To gain background information

To define terms
To clarify problems &
hypotheses
To establish research priorities

Exploratory Research
A variety of methods
are available

Secondary Data Analysis

Experience Surveys
Case Analysis
Focus Groups
Projective Techniques

Descriptive Research
undertaken to provide answers to
questions of who, what, where,
when, & how
but not why

Two basic classifications

Cross-sectional studies
Longitudinal studies

Cross-sectional Studies
measure units from a sample of the
population at only one point in time
Sample surveys are cross-sectional studies
whose samples are drawn in such a way as to be
representative of a specific population

On-line survey research

to collect data for cross-sectional surveys at a faster rate
of speed

Longitudinal Studies
Repeatedly draw sample units of a
population over time
One method is to draw different units from
the same sampling frame
A second method is to use a panel where
the same people are asked to respond
periodically.

On-line survey research

recruit panel members to respond to online
queries

Longitudinal Studies
Two types of panels
Continuous panels
ask panel members the same
questions on each panel
measurement.
Discontinuous (Omnibus) panels
vary questions from one time to
the next

Longitudinal
data used for:
Market tracking
Brand-switching
Attitude & image
checks

Causal Research
Causality may be thought of as
understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional
statements
If X, then Y

Causal relationships are typically

determined by the use of experiments,
but other methods are also used.

Experiments
Defined as manipulating
(changing values/situations)
one or more independent
variables
to see how the dependent variable(s)
is/are affected,
while also controlling the affects of
additional extraneous variables

Independent variables
those over which the researcher has control & wishes
to manipulate

Dependent variables
those over which the researcher has little to no direct
control, but has a strong interest in testing

Extraneous variables
those that may effect a dependent variable but are
not independent variables.

Experimental Design
A procedure for
devising an
experimental setting

such that a change in the

dependent variable
may be solely attributed to
a change in an independent
variable

Symbols of an experimental
design:

O = measurement of a dependent
variable
X = manipulation, or change, of an
independent variable
R = random assignment of subjects to
experimental & control groups
E = experimental effect

Experimental Design
After-Only Design
X O1
One-Group,
Before-After
Design
O1 X O2

Before-After with Control

Group:
Experimental
group
O1 X O2
Control group
O3 O4
Where E
(O2 O1) (O4
O3)

How Valid Are Experiments?

An experiment is valid
if:

the observed change in the

DV is, in fact, due to the IV
internal validity
if the results of the
experiment apply to the real
world outside the
experimental setting
external validity

Types of Experiments
Two broad classes:
Laboratory experiments
those in which the IV is manipulated & measures
of the DV are taken in a contrived, artificial
setting
for the purpose of controlling the many possible
extraneous variables that may affect the DV
Field experiments
those in which the IVs are manipulated &
measurements of the DV are made on test units
in their natural setting

Developing the
Theoretical &
Research
Framework

What is a
Theoretica
l
Framewor
k
TF of the study is a structure that can
hold or support a theory of a research
work
It presents the theory which explains
why the problem under study exists.
Thus, TF is but a theory that serves as a
basis for conducting research

Purpose
of a
Theoretica
l
Framewor
k

Helps to see clearly the variables of the

study
Can provide a general framework for
data analysis
Essential in preparing a research
proposal using descriptive &
experimental methods

A Researcher should . . .
specify the theory used as basis for the study
mention the proponents of the theory
cite the main points emphasized in the theory
support exposition of the theory by ideas of other
experts
illustrate the theoretical framework by means of a
diagram
reiterate the theoretical proposition in the study

Concept
After formulating the theoretical framework, the
researcher has to develop the conceptual framework
of the study
A concept is an image or symbolic representation of
an abstract idea.
Chinn & Kramer (1999) define a concept as a complex mental
formulation of experience.

While the theoretical framework is the theory on which

the study is based,
the conceptual framework is the operationalization of the theory

Conceptual framework
Researchers own position on the problem & gives
direction to the study
It may be an adaptation of a model used in a
previous study
with modifications to suit the inquiry

Shows the direction of the study & the

relationships of the different constructs
investigated

The Researcher should . . .

Cite his/her conceptual framework or paradigm
Identify her/his IVs
Once
has variables
been determined,
Pointthe
outconceptual
the DV &framework
intervening
the next for the researcher is to determine what
Show the
direction
of thetostudy
research
methods
to employ
best answer the
research problem through the proposed framework.

Research design depends on the

nature of the data to analyzed.
Quantitative data
When our thesis problem requires
numerical measurements of traits,
trends, characteristics or attributes of
the subject matter

Quantitative Analysis leads researcher

to:

depict what is typical & atypical among the data

show the degree of difference or relationship
between two or more variables
determine the likelihood that the findings are real
for the population
as opposed to having occurred only by chance
in the sample

Qualitative data
when your thesis problem focuses
on the meanings, perceptions,
symbols or description of the
subject matter

Qualitative Analysis leads

researcher to:
observe behaviors, situations,
interactions & environments
scrutinize these observations for
patterns & categories
answer research questions based on
what can be deduced from the findings

Identifying the
Population &
Sampling

Definitions
Population
group of things (people) having one or more
common characteristics

Sample
representative subgroup of the larger
population
used to estimate something about a population
(generalize)
must be similar to population on characteristic
being investigated

Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling

Simple random sampling

Stratified random
sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster (area) sampling
Multistage sampling

Deliberate
(quota) sampling
Convenience
sampling
Purposive
sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Equal probability
Techniques
Fishbowl (with replacement & w/o replacement)
Table of random numbers

Advantage
Most representative group

Disadvantage
Difficult to identify every member of a population

Stratified Random Sampling

Technique
Divide population into various strata
Randomly sample within each strata
Sample from each strata should be proportional

Advantage
Better in achieving representativeness on control variable

Disadvantage
Difficult to pick appropriate strata
Difficult to ID every member in population

Systematic Sampling
Technique
Use system to select sample (e.g., every 5th item in
alphabetized list, every 10th name in phone book)

Advantage
Quick, efficient, saves time & energy

Disadvantage
Not entirely bias free; each item does not have equal
chance to be selected
System for selecting subjects may introduce systematic
error
Cannot generalize beyond population actually sampled

Cluster (Area) Sampling

Randomly select groups (cluster)
all members of groups are subjects

Appropriate when
we cant obtain a list of the members of the
population
have little knowledge of pop characteristics
Pop is scattered over large geographic area

Cluster (Area) Sampling

Advantage
More practical, less costly

Conclusions should be stated in terms of

cluster
sample unit school

Sample size is # of clusters

Multistage Sampling

Stage 1
randomly sample clusters
(schools)

Stage 2

randomly sample individuals from

the schools selected

Deliberate (Quota) Sampling

Technique
Quotas set using some characteristic of the
population thought to be relevant
Subjects selected non-randomly to meet quotas
(convenience sampling)

Disadvantage
selection bias
Cannot set quotas for all characteristics important
to study

Convenience Sampling
Take them where you find them
Non-random

Intact classes, volunteers, survey respondents (low return), a

typical group, a typical person
Disadvantage
Selection bias

Use post hoc analysis

to show groups were equal at the start

Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling (criterion-based
sampling)

Establish criteria necessary for being included in study

& find sample to meet criteria

Solution: Screening
Use random sampling to obtain a representative
sample of larger population & then those subjects that
are not members of the desired population are
screened or filtered out
want to study smokers but cant identify all smokers

Sample Size
Critical factor is whether sample is representative
Necessary sample size depends on population
size
Recommendations:

Use tables from books

30 per group
Descriptive studies 10-20% of population
No more than 50% of population

Statistical power
Cohen/Cochran/Krejcie & Morgan

When Selecting Subjects

Are subjects with special characteristics necessary for
your research?
age, gender, trained/untrained, expert/novice, size, etc.)

Can you obtain the necessary permission &

cooperation from the subjects?
Can you find enough subjects?
Interaction among selection of subjects, treatments, &
measures is essential for experimental studies.

Reporting Subjects
State how many subjects were selected
Describe how the subjects were selected
Discuss whether any subjects were lost during the study &
why
Explain why the subjects were selected
Describe subject characteristics that are pertinent to study
Identify procedures taken to protect the subjects

Collecting the
Data

Major Techniques
for Collecting Data

Questionnaires
Interviews
Observation

Each method has advantages & limitations

No single method fully measure the
variable

Questionnaires & surveys

self-report biases
respondents tendency to give socially
desirable answers
rather than honest opinions

Observations
observer biases
seeing what one wants to see
rather than the actual

Questionnaires
One of the most efficient ways to collect
data
Contain fixed-response questions
Can be
administered to large numbers of people
simultaneously
analyzed quickly
easily be fed back to
standard based on common research or
customized to meet the specific data gathering need

Limitations
Responses are limited
to the questions asked in the instrument

Little opportunity
to probe for additional data or
to ask for clarification

Tend to be impersonal
Often elicit response biases
tend to answer in a socially acceptable manner

Sample Employee / Management Relationship Survey

Team Goals & Objectives
Unclear; diverse; conflicting

Clear; understood; shared by

all.

Employees are clear about

what is expected of them;
they know their
responsibilities & authority.

Employees are open &

authentic when
communicating with
management

Role Clarity
Employees are unclear about
their roles; responsibilities &
authority are ambiguous.
Communications
Employees are guarded &
cautious when communicating
with management
Decision Making
Little opportunity for input;
uninvolved; decisions made
autonomously.

Decisions made jointly

through group participation;
plenty of opportunity for
input; persons affected
asked for their opinion.

Interviews
Interviews are probably the most widely used technique for
collecting data in OD.
They permit the interviewer to ask the respondent direct
questions.
Further probing & clarification is possible as the interview
proceeds.
This flexibility is invaluable for gaining private views & feelings
about the organization & exploring new issues that emerge
during the interview.

Interviews
Interviews may be highly structured, resembling
questionnaires, or highly unstructured, starting with general
questions
that allow the respondent to lead the way

Interviews are usually conducted one-to-one

but can be carried out in a group

Group interviews save time &

allow people to build on others responses

Group interviews may inhibit respondents answers

if trust is an issue

Interviews/Focus Groups
Another unstructured group meeting conducted by a
manager or a consultant.
A small group of 10-15 people is selected representing a
larger group of people
Group discussion is started by asking general questions &
group members are encouraged to discuss their answers in some
depth.

The richness & validity of this information

Depends on the extent that trust exists

Drawback to interviews
They can consume a great deal of time
if interviewers take full advantage of the opportunity to hear respondents out & change
their questions accordingly

Personal biases
can also distort the data.

The nature of the question & the interactions between the interviewer
& the respondent
may discourage or encourage certain kinds of responses.

It take considerable skill

to gather valid data.

Sample Interview Questions

How do management & non-management employees interact in the
office?
How do you know when you have done an excellent job?
How do non-management employees learn about organizational
change?
If you could change one or two things about the way management &
non-management personnel interact, what would you change?

Observations
Observing organizational behaviors in their
functional settings
is one of the most direct ways to collect data

Observation can range from complete participant

observation,
where the OD practitioner becomes a member of the group
under study

to a more detached observation

using a casually observing & noting occurrences of specific
kinds of behaviors

Advantages to Observation
They are free of the biases inherent in the selfreport data
They put the practitioner directly in touch with the
behaviors in question
They involved real-time data, describing behavior
occurring in the present rather than the past
They are adapting in that they can be modified
depending on what is being observed

Problems with Observation

Difficulties interpreting the meaning
underlying the observations
Observers must decide which people to
observe; choose time periods, territory &
events
Failure to attend to these sampling issues can
result in a biased sample of data

Observation Protocol
A decision needs to be made on
what to observe
Observe how managers & employees
interact in the office.
Observe who has lunch with whom
Do managers & non-managers eat
together?
Do executives have a private lunch area?

Analyzing the Data

Blind men & an elephant

- Indian fable
Things arent always what we think!
Six blind men go to observe an elephant
One feels the side & thinks the elephant is like a wall
One feels the tusk & thinks the elephant is a like a spear
One touches the squirming trunk & thinks the elephant is like a
snake
One feels the knee & thinks the elephant is like a tree
One touches the ear, & thinks the elephant is like a fan
One grasps the tail & thinks it is like a rope
They argue long & loud & though each was partly in the right, all were
in the wrong

Quantitative data analysis

Making sense of the numbers
to permit meaningful interpretation
organize the data
do the calculations
interpret the information
lessons learned
explain limitations

Data Organization
Organize
all
forms/questionnaire
s

Check

completeness &
accuracy

Remove
incomplete or no
sense
keep a record of
decisions

Assign

a unique ID to each
form/questionnaire

Data Entry
Computer-assisted

Manual

Spreadsheet
Microsoft Excel
Database management
Microsoft Access
Quantitative analysis
using statistical software
SPSS, SAS, AMOS

Which calculation to use?

Number of individuals

Frequency

Proportion of people

Percentage

Average number or average score

Mean

Middle value in a range of values or scores

Median

Range in answers or scores

Range

Compare one group to another

Cross tab

Report changes from pre to post

Change score

Show the degree to which a response varies

from the mean

Standard
deviation

Interpreting the information

Numbers do not speak for themselves

a process of attaching meaning to

the data
What does it mean? What do these numbers
mean?
55 youth reported a change in behavior
25% of participants rated the program a 5
& 75% a 4

Interpret fairly & judge

carefully

same data may be interpreted

differently
consider different people to
interpret
meet key stakeholders
ask individual participants

Discuss limitations
Be explicit
about limitations

Be prepared
to discuss
limitations

Be honest

about limitations

Some claims cannot be made

Causation
without a true experimental
design
Generalization
without random sample & quality
administration

Have fun writing your

research proposal !!!

TURIMAN SUANDI
019-395 2481
turiman55@gmail.com