Islamic History: the First 150 Years

From Abd al-Malik to Hisham

Session Plan
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Unity Restored
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
Hisham and the End of Expansion
Rumblings of Thunder
Readings

Section I: Unity Restored

Unity Lost
During the first 3 sessions, we looked at the
evolution of the early Muslim community
We saw that the central question facing the Muslim
state was that of leadership
In sessions one and two we looked at the differing
responses to these questions under Abu Bakr,
Umar, Uthman and Ali
We then looked at the break down of the
patriarchal caliphate
The first fitna: Ali & Muawiya
The second fitna: Umayyads, Husayn and Abdullah
ibn al-Zubayr
We also saw the emergence of a fourth trend, if
you will, that of the neutrals

Unity Restored
As we saw last week, with the death of Ibn alZubayr, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan became the
undisputed caliph
The reign of Abd al-Malik is an important one for a
number of reasons
Firstly, it is with him that the Umayyad empire takes
its concrete form
Secondly, his twenty year rule allowed relative
peace and stability to return
Thirdly, a number of important religious
developments occur in his reign
Fourthly, his reign (and that of his son Hisham)
mark the effective zenith of the Umayyad empire

Unity Restored
However, despite his importance, we will not
be exploring his reign in fine detail
I intend to explore a number of key
elements, which, it is hoped, will paint a
representative picture
These include:
Relationships with Religious Notables
Iraq
Jerusalem
Further reading: C.F. Robinson Abd al-Malik

Relationships
Abd al-Maliks relations with the religious elite are marked by ambiguity
Unlike earlier caliphs, Abd al-Malik had grown up in Islam
As a young man, he had shown a particular interest in the study of
Prophetic Traditions and in the biography of Muhammad
Some reports also state that he had memorised the entire Quran (hafiz
al-Quran)
Tradition, however, relates that his accession brought about a change
He is said to have subordinated everything to policy
That is, he seems to have taken the running of the empire seriously
Raja ibn Haiwa al-Kindi, an early religious figure, seems to have been
influential under him
Moreover, he also patronised ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, the early hadith
scholar and historian (whom we met last week)
Despite this, it is from his reign onwards that we begin to see learned
Muslims effectively staying away from involvement with the government
In other words, it was considered somewhat disreputable for a religious
scholar to be associated with the state
This may well be due to the increasingly negative view of the Umayyad
dynasty

Iraq
In Iraq, Abd al-Maliks drive for stability and order
effectively meant the repression of rebellious
elements
His governor, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, was
infamous for his use of naked force
His command began with what Hodgson describes
as terrifying violence in which 1000s are said to
have died
A major Kharijite revolt was also defeated
However, his harsh measures eventually prompted
sections of the army itself to revolt under ibn alAshath
Al-Hajjaj also built a number of canals and
irrigation channels

Other Measures
Abd al-Malik also reformed the coinage
The earlier method of using existing Byzantine and
Sassanid coinage was replaced
A new Islamic coinage was introduced
They were of a standard weight and metal standard
and helped stabilise the economy
They also carried ideological/religious messages
They were aniconic
Contained passages from the Quran and
statements of Islamic belief
They were so successful that they quickly became
the standard form of Muslim coinage

Post-Reform Coinage

Mecca & Jerusalem

The Kaba at Mecca the central shrine of Islam
Islamic tradition describes the sanctuary as being built by
Abraham and Ishmael
The Arab tribes who inherit the site eventually fall into
paganism
Key idols of Mecca:
Manat: literally meaning fate, this deity was widely
worshipped throughout Arabia
Al-`Uzza: literally meaning the mighty one (feminine)
Al-Lat: the Goddess
These three goddesses are the deities named in the
Satanic Verses story
Believed to have power of intercession with Allah

Mecca & Jerusalem

Islamic tradition holds that Allah was recognised by
the pagan Arabs as a High God
Hubal: an imported deity originally from Palestine
The tradition holds that on the conquest of Mecca,
Muhammad cleared the Kaba of some 360 idols
A suspiciously round number
Not impossible of course, but seems to represent a
god for every day of the solar year
The Meccan shrine, according to the tradition, was
thus the ritual centre of Islam from the beginning

Mecca & Jerusalem

Indeed there are numerous references to the House in the
Quran
Some modern authorities, however, understand this
development differently
Crone and Cook Hagarism
Within the Islamic framework, Mecca holds a particular
importance
During the early period of Islam (and indeed the whole of
Islamic history) control of the Meccan shrine was politically
important
Within our context, Abdullah in al-Zubayrs control of Mecca
enabled him to claim a large degree of legitimacy
That is, God Himself, the Lord of this House (surah
quraysh), had given control of his sanctuary to ibn al-Zubayr
Important propaganda value

Mecca and Jerusalem

Once in control of Umayyad Syria, Abd al-Malik began to
develop the Temple Mount area of Jerusalem
The Temple Mount had been empty for quite some time
Abd al-Malik built the Dome of the Rock
This is a deeply fascinating building
It is not a traditional mosque: its a hexagonal building built
around a central mount
This is believed to be the spot where Muhammad ascended to
heaven
Al-Zuhri cites a report in which Abd al-Malik allegedly built the
Dome of the Rock to compete with Mecca (then under
Zubayrid control)
A somewhat defaced inscription on the Dome of the Rock
reads: The servant of God, Abd al-Malik, the Amir alMumineen, built this Qubba in the year 72 hijri
Al-Mamun (an Abbasid Caliph) had Abd al-Maliks name
removed and his own put in its place

Mecca and Jerusalem

The most interesting question regarding the Dome of the
Rock is why?
Why build such an unusual sanctuary there, at this time?
The Dome is also adorned with Quranic calligraphy and is
one of the earliest uses of the Quran on architecture
The Quranic texts used on the Dome are also interesting
and probably point towards Abd al-Maliks actual intentions
They quote passages from the Quran which refer to the
Islamic understanding of Jesus Christ
Specifically, they refer to Islams understanding that he was
not divine, but a human prophet
In other words, the Dome is thus part of a wider theological
debate
It was also probably meant to physically assert Islams
religious, theological and political superiority over both
Judaism and Christianity

The Dome of the Rock

The Dome of the Rock

The Dome of the Rock

The Dome of the Rock

Questions?

Section II: Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

Abd al-Malik had a large family and because of this four of his
children became caliphs after him
However, the most famous ruler after him was not actually his
son, but his nephew Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
Umar is an interesting character and is the only Umayyad caliph
to be viewed positively by later Muslim tradition
Indeed, some even felt that he was the fifth rightly guided caliph
after Muhammad
Although there are a number of reasons for this, perhaps the most
significant of them is the perception of Umars motives
In other words, Umar is perceived to ruled through adherence to
Islamic norms
Or, again, he ruled in accordance with what our sources felt were
Islamic norms
In assessing Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, we must therefore take our
sources biases into account
Nevertheless, it does seem that Umar was personally committed
to his religious principles and seems to have attempted to rule by
them

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

1.
2.
3.
4.

Wellhausen, an early 20th century writer, has this to say:

Sulaiman was a luxurious profligate, Umar almost an ascetic; to the former
the ruling power offered unlimited means of enjoyment; upon the latter it
imposed a a weight of responsibility. In everything he did judgement
loomed before his eyes, and he was always afraid of coming up short of
the requirements of God (p. 268)
Umars Policies
Almost all outward expansion stopped and most advanced outposts withdrawn
However, the Narbonne region of southern France was fortified under Umar
Although he used existing men, Umar seems to have appointed provincial
governors for their ability and honesty (Tab. 3. 1383)
Thus Abd al-Hamid ibn Abd al-Rahman of Umar Is family became governor of
Kufa
He also brought the emerging Islamic religious scholarly elite into the business
of government
In a letter to his provincial governors, he is said to have named the pillars of
government as:
The Wali (Executive Governor)
The Judge (or Qadi, i.e. someone learned in Islamic law)
The Tax Administrator
The Caliph

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

He appointed the famous Hasan al-Basri Qadi (judge) of Basra

Hasan is an important early ascetic and mystic
Umar also reformed the tax system
Although his changes were rather complex, in essence we can say that
he attempted to make taxation conform to Islamic ideals
Thus the mawali were given automatic entitlement to their Quranically
allotted privileges
Land use was also reformed: common land was to be used for the
communities to which it was originally intended
The sources report that Umar was an eager missionary
He is said to have invited the rulers of Sind (in modern Pakistan) and
various Berber tribes (in Morocco and Algeria) to accept Islam
Umar also wrote to the Byzantine emperor Leo II, in an apparent attempt
to convert him
He prohibited the cursing of Ali, which Muawiya had introduced
He is also said to have ordered the collation of Prophetic Traditions, in
order to ensure their authenticity
This last measure presumably sprang from two motives
A desire to preserve/record Muhammads words
A desire to preserve a key source of Islamic law (the Shariah)

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

However, despite all of these energetic reforms,
Umars reign was a short one
He died after a mere 2 years in office (715-717CE)
In some senses, this is another important factor in
his enduring popularity
That is, had he ruled for longer, he may not have
been able to maintain his momentum
Hisham, Umars effective (but not actual
successor), undid all of these reforms and restored
Umayyad dominance on its pre-existing lines
And, as we shall see, although he reigned for a
long time in relative peace, his caliphate saw the
beginnings of the end for the Umayyad dynasty

Questions?

Section III: Hisham and the End of Expansion

Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik

As his name suggests, Hisham was a son of
Abd al-Malik
He ruled the Muslim empire from 105-125AH
(or 724-743CE)
His 20 year rule thus brought stability after
another period of turmoil after Umar IIs
death
Essential Readings for Hisham
K. Y. Blankinship The End of the Jihad State
J. Wellhausen The Arab Kingdom and its
Fall

Internal Opposition

Kharijite groups, spread to North Africa

Shiite discontent continued to manifest itself
In 740CE, Zayd ibn Ali revolted at Kufa against Hisham
Zayd ibn Ali (Zayn al-Abidin) ibn Husayn ibn Ali
Brother of Muhammad ibn Ali al-Baqir
Despite popular support, the revolt was soon crushed
However, despite its failure, Zayds revolt was significant in a
number of ways
Firstly, it underlines continuing opposition to Umayyad rule
from the Alid family and its supporters
Secondly, Zayd became another martyr to the Shiite cause
Thirdly, his rising marks the emergence of a new trend in
Shiite thought regarding the nature of the imamate (more on
this in a moment)
Fourthly, the Abbasid revolution (which we will come to in the
next session) styled itself as vengeance for Zayd (and all
other Shiite martyrs)

Zayds Refrom Manifesto

1. Apply the Quran and Sunnah
2. Wage jihad against oppressors
3. Defend the weak
4. Provide for the deprived
5. Equally divide the income from Muslim
property by right of conquest (fay) among
those deserving it
6. Satisfy complaints
7. Bring back those held in the field
campaigning for more than one year
8. Support the Alids against those resisting or
denying their rights

The Concept of Imamate in Early Shii Thought

As you might expect, during the century of Umayyad rule, the
Shiite concept of Imamate underwent some development
Although charting the development in detail would take too long
here, we can look at some key features
Those interested in this subject should consult
S. H. Jafri The History and Early Development of Shia Islam
A. Lalani Early Shii Thought: the Teachings of Muhammad alBaqir
M. Hodgson How did the Shia become sectarian? (This is a
journal article; I own a copy)
Ali as Imam and Amir al-Muminin
In other words, temporal and religious functions combined
The fact that his descendents did not hold power was
problematic at first
However, probably first under Zayn al-Abidin, Shii thinkers began
to separate these two aspect
That is, the authority of the imam did not depend on his holding
power

The Concept of Imamate in Early Shii Thought

Muhammad al-Baqir and later his son, Jafar al-Sadiq, began to

articulate this idea clearly
Thus although they were not involved in politics they still seem to
have understood themselves to be the rightful imams of the Muslim
community
They put forward two main arguments
Firstly, after Hasans death, the imamate could only run through
Husayns line
Secondly, an imam could only be appointed by the explicit designation
(known as nass in Arabic) of the incumbent
Essentially, this stabilised the charismatic leadership of the Alid house
As we saw last week, moreover, there were some within the Shia
milieu that believed the imam to be more than human (we will look
more at this in the next session)
However, this was not the only viewpoint
Zayd (Muhammads brother) seems to have strongly disagreed with
this idea
He argued, in common with al-Baqir, that an imam can only come
from the house of Ali

The Concept of Imamate in Early Shii Thought

1.
2.

However, he did not restrict this to the line of Husayn

Rather, any suitably qualified Alid could be a potential imam
Two things were required to actualise this
Religious Knowledge
Public Declaration of Imamate
According to Zayd, the Imam had to arise sword in hand
These differences eventually led to the development of two different
schools of thought within Shia Islam
Those who followed Muhammad al-Baqirs ideas became known as
the Imami Shia
From the Imami school of thought later emerged the Twelver Shia of
Iran, as well as the Ismaili (and thus Druze) Shia i.e. those who
follow the Aga Khan
Those who followed Zayd became known as Zaydi Shia
Because they did not accept designation as such, there were many
small groups of independent Zaydis
During the course of time, Zaydi Shiites established imamates in
northern Persia (on the shores of the Caspian Sea) in the Daylam
region and in Yemen

The Twelver Shia Line

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Ali ibn Abi Talib

Hasan ibn Ali
Hussein ibn Ali
Ali ibn Hussein
Muhammad ibn Ali (known as al-Baqir, or He who splits
open [religious knowledge] and Zayds brother)
6. Jafar ibn Muhammad (known as al-Sadiq, the Truthful)
7. Musa ibn Jafar (al-Kazim)
8. Ali ibn Musa (al-Rida, or the Chosen)
9. Muhammad ibn Ali (al-Taqi, the Godfearing)
10. Ali ibn Muhammad (al-Naqi)
11. Hasan ibn Ali (al-`Askari)
12. Muhammad ibn Ali (al-Mahdi, the Rightly Guided One
or the Messiah)

External Opposition
Hishams rule was also challenged by a number of external
foes
As we saw, Hisham reversed Umars policy of
disengagement and initiated an aggressive expansionist
policy
At first this appeared to be largely successful
However, the strains caused by this expansionism soon
began to show
Muslim armies met with a number of serious defeats in
many of its main theatres of war
Moreover, new fronts also opened up
The effect of all of this was to place a serious burden on the
Muslim empires available manpower
A brief glance at a map will help make this clear

The Muslim World

External Opposition
Anatolia: war against the Byzantines continued throughout
this period
Caucasus: Muslim forces suffer a number of serious
setbacks against the Khazar confederation (in alliance with
Byzantium)
Khazar forces manage to raid Armenia and threaten Mosul
(northern Iraq)
Central Asia: the Turgesh confederation inflicted a number of
defeats on Muslim forces
Sijistan: a number of expensive campaigns against the Zunbil
Sind/India: Muslim forces faced a number of resurgent Hindu
kingdoms and were effectively driven back
Khurasan: at the Battle of the Defile, Muslim casualties are
reported to have been approximately 20,000 dead
Mediterranean Area: Sicily and Sardinia attacked
Spanish Frontier: Frankish attacks drive Muslims out of
southern France (Narbonne)

External Opposition
These defeats swallowed up much of the available manpower
Moreover, they also placed a great strain on the Syrian forces
Because these were, in some senses, crack troops they had
been used to keep the peace in Iraq and other places
With these defeats, more Syrian contingents began to be sent
to different frontiers
This weakened the internal hold of the Umayyad dynasty
significantly
Indeed, this only exacerbated the problem as Syrian troops
became too thinly spread to prevent further revolts
The Great Berber Revolt: 122-125AH (740-743CE)
Excessive taxation and the illegal removal of Muslim Berbers
as slaves seem to have been the immediate causes
In any case, an enormous rebellion eventually proved
successful and Umayyad control of the Maghreb region was
lost

External Opposition
This also considerably weakened the governments hold of
Spain
However, a fugitive Umayyad eventually took control of the
province in the aftermath of the Abbasid revolution
Hisham dies in 125AH (743CE)
Yazid III
His revolt soon crushed, but, his apparent programme is
interesting
A self-conscious return to the past?
Main points include
Not to build any buildings of brick or stone, nor to dig any
new canals
Not to hoard wealth
Not to give wealth to wives or children
To transfer wealth to other provinces only after first is fully
taken care of
Spend any surplus in nearest province

External Opposition

Not to keep troops in the field for more than 1 year

Not to lock out petitioners
To reduce non-Muslim taxation
To give all Muslim troops equal stipends
To acknowledge the right of Muslims to reproach
the Caliph should he stray
In some senses, this is reminiscent of Zayd ibn Alis
programme
And, is probably best seen as an attempt to
address the perceived social ills of the day via a
return to Islamic norms
As Blankinship says, This program is redolent of
irritation with the policies of Hisham (p.227)

Section IV: Rumblings of Thunder

Rumblings of Thunder
As we have seen, by the time of Hishams death the
Muslim empire had reached something of an impasse
It had suffered several important military defeats
Moreover, these defeats meant a significant drop in the
level and amount of booty
In many ways, it was this drop in income which caused
the most significant problems for the Umayyad regime
Large scale war booty had effectively masked the
underlying difficulties of the period and with their
removal, they began to surface
Firstly, Hishams death saw another return to civil war, as
a number of factions fought for control
This resulted in the accession and death of a number of
candidates
This led to military revolts and provincial insecurities,
further exacerbating the economic situation

Rumblings of Thunder
Secondly, this period again saw the re-emergence of a
number of Shia uprisings
However we will look more closely at that in the
following session
Thirdly, this political instability was made worse by the
continuing feud between the Qudaa and Qays tribal
groupings
Fourthly, during Hishams reign, the scholarly class
(ulama) had once again begun to withdraw from public
office
This effectively removed an important support for the
Umayyad regime
And, indeed, became the breeding ground for active
opposition
There were, furthermore, a number of Kharijite revolts

Section V: Readings

Readings

Your reading packs contain a number of

readings
P. Crone Meccan Trade and the Rise of
Islam
Oleg Grabar Ceremonial and Art at the
Umayyad Court
Oleg Grabar The Formation of Islamic Art
Pre-Islamic Poetry (The Hanged Poems)
A short passage attributed to Hasan al-Basri