WORKING STRESS METHOD:

Structure is designed assuming that it is in working

condition, it uses permissible stresses and factors
of safety for design.
LIMIT STATE METHOD:

Structures are designed with this method assuming

that the structure has reached its limit state.
The object of design is based on the concept that the
structure should not become unserviceable in
its lifetime for the use for which it is intended.

LIMIT STATE
METHOD

Concerned with functioning

of structure or structural
members under normal
use, or comfort of people or
appearance of the
construction works

 Concrete should be able to perform satisfactorily in

anticipated exposure conditions during its service

life.

Durability is mainly affected by:

1. Permeability of concrete
2. Environment
3. Cover to embedded steel
4. Type and quality of constituent material
5. Cement content and water cement ratio
6. Workmanship; for full compaction and curing
7. Shape and size of member

1) PERMEABILITY:
Low permeability is achieved by having
adequate cement content, sufficiently low
water cement ratio, complete compaction and
adequate curing.

2) ENVIRONMENT:
General environment to which concrete will be
subjected to is classified in 5 levels of severity
i. e. mild, moderate, severe, very severe &
extreme.

3) COVER TO CONCRETE: #cls.26.4

For longitudinal reinforcing bars in column

nominal cover should not be less than
40mm or the dia. of such bar. For columns
with dimensions less than 200mm a cover
of 25mm may be used.

For footings minimum cover shall be 50mm.

4) CONSTITUENT MATERIAL: #cls.8.2.5

Deleterious constituents such as chlorides and
sulphates should not exceed limits

5) CEMENT CONTENT & WATER CEMENT RATIO :

OPC in excess of 450 kg/m3 should not be used
unless special consideration in design has been
given to the risk of cracking.

6) COMPACTION AND CURING:

Adequate compaction
should be ensured.

Overworking the surface and

water/cement should be avoided.

Curing is essential to reduce permeability of

concrete .
#cls.13.5
provides for moist curing which
should be done for atleast 7 days for OPC and
minimum 10 days(extendable to 14) for other
types of blended cements.

without

segregation

addition

of

7) SHAPE AND SIZE OF MEMBER:

Design of exposed structures should promote

good drainage of water.

For structures subjected to partial hydrostatic

pressure life can be lengthened by providing

extra cover to steel, chamfering the corners or
using circular cross sections.

1) OVERTURNING: #cls.20.1
Restoring moment shall not be less than
1.2(max. overturning moment due to characteristic
DL) +1.4(max. overturning moment due to
characteristic IL)
*in

cases where only DL provides restoring

moment,
0.9(characteristic
DL)
shall
b
considered.

The

anchorages provided for overhanging

members shoulrd be such that static equilibrium
is maintained.

2) SLIDING:
The structure should have a factor of not
less than 0.4 against sliding.
3)VARIATION IN DEAD LOAD:
probable variation in dead load during
construction, repair etc should be taken into
account.
4)MOMENT CONNECTIONS:
For designing framework of building,
adequate moment connections or system of
bracing should be provided to transmit
horizontal forces to the foundation.
5)LATERAL SWAY:
Lateral sway at the top of building should
not exceed H/500.
*H is total height of building.

Fire resistance of concrete depends on member

size, cover to reinforcement and type of
aggregate.

 A structural element when designed for

design load should not undergo excessive

deflection.
Causes for short term deflection are:
1. Magnitude and distribution of live load
2. Span and type of end restraints
3. Cross sectional properties and % of steel.
4. Stress in reinforcement
5. Amount and extent of cracking

Causes of long term deflection are:

1. Humidity and temperature conditions at the
time of curing of concrete.
2. Age of concrete at the time of loading
3. Other factors influencing shrinkage and
creep: type and size of aggregate, water
cement ratio, size of member, presence of
compression reinforcement etc.

The total deflection due to all loads should not

exceed span/250 for slabs, beams and other

horizontal members.
The deflection should not exceed span/350 or 20

mm whichever is less for these members, after

the construction of partitions and finishes etc, in
order to avoid damage to them.

IS
456
cls.23.2.1
recommends
that
if
span/effective depth ratio are kept below the
following( for span less than 10m) then vertical
deflection
will not be excessive.
TYPE OF SUPPORT
RECTANGULAR
SECTIONS
CANTILEVER

SIMPLY SUPPORTED

20

CONTINUOUS

26

For simply supported and continuous span over

10m the ratio must be multiplied by a factor F

given as: 10/span in metres.

For

cantilevers over 10m in length, actual

deflection has to be calculated and checked with
the provisions of LSM for deflection.

For flanged beams the values for rectangular section

need to be multiplied by reduction factor which is
worked out from the graph below:
*

Cracks

develop when tensile strength of

concrete is exceeded.

Cracks are an eyesore, affect strength of

structure & exposes reinforcement making it

vulnerable to corrosion.
As per cls.35.3.2 the crack width at the
surface of concrete should not exceed 0.3mm
for the sake of appearance.
EXPOSURE INTENSITY

CRACK WIDTH

MODERATE EXPOSURE

Limited to 0.2mm

SEVERE EXPOSURE

Limited to 0.1mm

AGGRESSIVE EXPOSURE

Not more than 0.004mm

In general while designing flexural members,

compliance with spacing requirements as per
cls.26.3.2 are sufficient to control cracking

The horizontal distance between 2 parallel

main reinforcing bars should not be less than:
Diameter of bar if diameter is equal
Diameter of the larger bar if diameter is equal
5mm more than the nominal size of coarse
aggregate

When there are more than one row of bar:

The bar should be vertically in line
The minimum vertical distance between the bars shall be
greater of:
15mm
2/3 of the nominal max size of aggregate

If greater spacing is required crack width has

to be checked as per formula mentioned in

Annexure F of IS 456

SLENDER BEAMS
Those beams in which breadth of compression
face is small as compared with its depth and
thus the compression side has a tendency to
buckle.
#cls 23.3
TYPE OF BEAM

CLEAR DISTANCE
BETWEEN LATERAL
SUPPORTS OR FROM
FREE END TO FIXED
END

SIMPLY SUPPORTED OR
CONTINUOUS BEAM

<60b OR <250b2/d
(whichever is less)

CANTILEVER BEAM

<25b OR < 100b2/d

(whichever is less)

Vibrations may be caused by machines with

rotating parts, electric overhead cranes, wind or
earthquake loads or simply by intense repair work
in a structure.

These vibrations lead to cracks in the structural

elements overtime not to mention disturbance to

the
inhabitants,
rendering
the
structure
unserviceable.
Code is silent but research is needed on this topic.

PRESENTED BY:
ADITI SHARMA
SAURABH SOOD
CHARUL SHARMA