Image Restoration 1

Image Restoration
The main aim of restoration is to improve an

image in some predefined way.
Image Enhancement is a subjective process
whereas Image restoration tries to reconstruct or
recover an image which was degraded using a
priori knowledge of degradation.
Here we model the degradation and apply the
inverse process to recover the original image.
Enhancement techniques take advantage of the
psychophysical aspects of human visual system.
(eg) contrast stretching is an enhancement
method as it is concerned with the pleasing
aspects of a viewer, whereas removal of image
blur is a restoration process.
Model of Image Degradation /

Restoration Process
In this model, we assume that there is an
additive noise term, operating on an input image
f(x,y) to produce a degraded image g(x,y).
Given g(x,y) and some information about
degradation function H, and knowledge about
noise term (x,y).
The aim of restoration is to get an estimate f(x,y)
of original image.
The more we know about H and term , we get
better results.
Model of Image Degradation /

Restoration Process
Here H is a linear, position-invariant process. The
degraded image is given as:
g(x,y) = h(x,y)*f(x,y) + (x,y)

Here h(x,y) is the spatial representation of the
degradation function.
The symbol * indicates convolution.
The convolution in spatial domain is equal to
multiplication in frequency domain.
In Frequency domain we have:
G(u,v) = H(u,v)F(u,v) + N(u,v)

Here capital letters are the Fourier transforms of the
corresponding terms.
For simplicity, we consider the case of H being the
identity operator.
Origin of Noise
Noise in a digital image arises mainly due
to acquisition (digitization) and / or
transmission.
Environmental conditions, quality of
sensing elements, interference in the
transmission channel, lightning and
atmospheric disturbance are some
examples.
Properties of Noise
When the Fourier spectrum of noise is constant,
the noise is called a white noise.
This is similar to white light, which contains
nearly all frequencies in the visible spectrum in
equal quantities.
Fourier spectrum of a function containing all
frequencies in equal proportions is a constant.
We assume that noise is independent of
coordinates, and it is uncorrelated with respect
to the pixel values.
Noise Probability Density Functions

The noise component is considered to be a random
variable and characterized by a probability density
function (PDF).
Some common PDFs used in image processing are:
Gaussian noise
Gaussian (or normal) noise wide spread in usage. The
PDF of a Gaussian random variable, z is given by
p(z) = (1/sqrt(2**)).exp (-(z-)2/2* 2)

Here z represents gray level, is the mean of z, and
is the standard deviation.
The square of standard deviation is called the variance
of z.
Nearly 70% of the value of this function lies in the range
[( ), ( + )] and about 95% of its value lies in the
range [( 2 ), ( + 2)].
Noisy Image
% Gaussian noise
% Read a gray scale image (having few regulat
patterns) and add gaussian
% noise of certain mean value,standard deviation and
certain percentage.
% plot the histogram of noise, noisy image. ensure that
the profile of the
% noise is visible in the profile of the noisy image.
clear all; close all; clc;
a = imread('pattern.png');
a = im2double(a);
sizeA = size(a);
p3 = 0; % Gaussian noise mean value
p4 = 1; % Gaussian noise variance value
R = p3+p4*randn([256,256]);
R1 = a+R;
figure,imshow(R1),title('Noisy Image');
figure,hist(R,50),title('Probability density function');
Rayleigh noise
The PDF of Rayleigh noise is given by
p(z) = (2/b)*(z-a)*exp(-(z-a)2/b for z a
= 0
for z < a
The mean and variance of this PDF are:
= a + sqrt(b/4) and 2 = b(r )/4.
One has to note the displacement of PDF
from the origin and skewed to the right.
Thus this is useful for skewed histograms.
Noisy Image
% Rayleigh noise
% Read a gray scale image (having few regulat patterns) and add rayleigh
% noise of certain mean value,standard deviation and certain percentage.
% plot the histogram of noise, noisy image. ensure that the profile of the
a = im2double(a);
sizeA = size(a);
p3 = 0.95;
A = 0; B = 2;
R = A + (-B*log(1-rand(sizeA))).^0.5;
x = rand(sizeA);
b=a;
for i=1:sizeA(1)
for j=1:sizeA(2)
if (x(i,j)< p3)
b(i,j)=a(i,j)+R(i,j);
end
end
end
figure,imshow(a);
figure,imshow(b),title('Noisy Image');
figure,hist(b);
Erlang (Gamma) noise

The PDF of Erlang noise is given by
abzb-1
p(z) = -------- e-az

for z 0
(b -1) !
=
0
for z < 0
Here a > 0, b is a positive integer. The
mean and variance of this density are:
= (b/a) and 2 = (b/a2).
Noisy Image

a = im2double(a);
sizeA = size(a);
p3 = 0.9;
A = 2; B = 5;
k = -1/A;
R = zeros(sizeA);
for i=1:B
R = R+k*log(1-rand(sizeA));
end
x = rand(sizeA);
b=a;
for i=1:sizeA(1)
for j=1:sizeA(2)
if (x(i,j)< p3)
end
end
end
figure,imshow(a);
Exponential noise
The PDF of exponential noise is given as:
p(z) = ae-az for z 0
= 0 for z < 0
Here a > 0. The mean and variance of
this density function are
= (1/a) and 2 = (1/a2).
This PDF is the special case of the Erlang
PDF, with b =1.
Noisy Image
% Exponential noise
% Read a gray scale image (having few regulat patterns) and add exponential
a = im2double(a);
sizeA = size(a);
p3 = 0.9;
A = 1;
k = -1/A;
R = k*log(1-rand(sizeA));
x = rand(sizeA);
b=a;
for i=1:sizeA(1)
for j=1:sizeA(2)
if (x(i,j)< p3)
end
end
end
figure,imshow(a);
figure,hist(b);
Uniform noise
The PDF of uniform noise is given by:
p(z) = (1/(b-a)) if a z b
= 0
otherwise
The mean and variance are given as:
= (a+b)/2 and 2 = ((b-a)2)/12.
Noisy Image
% Uniform noise
% Read a gray scale image (having few regulat patterns) and add uniform
%a = zeros([256,256]);
a = im2double(a);
sizeA = size(a);
A = 0; % Min noise level
B = 1; % Max noise level
p3 = 0.95; % Noise percentage
R = A + (B - A)*rand(sizeA);
x = rand(sizeA);
b=a;
for i=1:sizeA(1)
for j=1:sizeA(2)
if x(i,j) < p3
end
end
end
figure,imshow(a);
figure,hist(b);
Impulse ( salt and pepper) noise

The PDF of (bipolar) impulse noise is given by:
p(z) = Pa for z = a
= Pb for z = b
= 0 otherwise
If b > a, gray-level b will appear as a light dot in
the image. Level a will appear like a dark dot.
If either Pa or Pb is zero, the impulse noise is
called unipolar.
If both the probabilities are equal, impulse noise
will resemble salt and pepper noise.
Hence bipolar noise is also called as salt-andpepper noise or Shot and spike noise.
Impulse Noise
Noise impulses can be positive or negative.
Generally impulse corruption is large compared
to the strength of image signal and hence are
treated as extreme (black or white) values.
Negative impulses appear s black (pepper)
points.
Positive impulses appear white (salt) noise.
For an 8 bit image a = 0 (black) and b = 255
(white).
Noisy Image
% Salt & pepper noise noise

% Read a gray scale image (having few regulat patterns) and add salt &
% pepper noise of certain mean value,standard deviation and certain percentage.
%a = imread('pattern.png');
a = zeros([256,256]);
a = im2double(a);
sizeA = size(a);
p3 = 0.3;
b = a;
x = rand(sizeA);
b(x < p3/2) = 0; % Minimum value
b(x >= p3/2 & x < p3) = 1; % Maximum (saturated) value
figure,imshow(a);
figure,hist(b,50),title('Probability density function');
Origin of Noises
Gaussian noise arises in an image such as
electronic circuit noise and sensor noise due to
poor illumination and/or high temperature.
The Rayleigh noise arises in range imaging.
The exponential and gamma noises appear in
laser imaging.
Impulse noise is found in places where quick
transients, such as faulty switching take place
during imaging.
Restoring Noisy images in spatial

domain
Spatial filtering is good when only additive noise is present.
Arithmetic mean filter
Let Sxy represent the set of coordinates in a rectangular
subimage window of size m X n, centered at (x,y).
The arithmetic mean filter computes the average value of the
corrupted image g(x,y) in the area of Sxy.
The restored image f at any point (x,y) is the arithmetic mean
calculated using the region of Sxy. Thus,
f(x,y) = (1/mn) * g(s,t)

This operation is carried on a convolution mask in which all
coefficients have the value (1/mn).
This filter simply smoothes local variations in an image.
Noise is reduce as a result of blurring.
Geometric mean filter

This filter can be implemented using the
expression:
f(x,y) = [ g(s,t) ]1/mn

Here each restored pixel is given by the
product of the pixels in the subimage
window, raised to the power of 1/mn.
It gives smoothing comparable to that of
arithmetic mean filter, but tends to lose
less image detail during the process.
Gaussian Noise
Geometric mean filtered
Harmonic mean filter
This filter can be given by:

f(x,y) = (mn) / (1/g(s,t)).
This filter is good for removing salt noise.
But fails to remove pepper noise.
It works well with other noises such as
Gaussian noise.
Salt Noise
Harmonic mean filtered
% Harmonic mean filter

% Read a gray scale image and add a noise to it and filter it using
% Harmonic mean filter.
f = imread('Saltcman.tif');
%f = imnoise(f,'gaussian',0,0.02);
f = im2double(f);
%subplot(1,2,1),imshow(f),title('Original Image');
figure,imshow(f),title('Salt Noise');
[m n]=size(f);
for i = 2:m-1
for j = 2:n-1
con=0; s1=0;
for k1 = i-1:i+1
for p1 = j-1:j+1
con = con+1;
if f(k1,p1)==0
s1 = s1+0;
else
s1=s1+(1/f(k1,p1));
end
end
end
b1(i,j)=con/s1;
end
end
%subplot(1,2,2),imshow(b1),title('Harmonic mean filtered');
figure,imshow(b1),title('Harmonic mean filtered');
Contra harmonic mean filter

This filer can be implemented using the
expression:
f(x,y) = g(s,t)Q+1/ g(s,t)Q

Here Q is the order of the filter.
It is good for reducing the effect of salt and
pepper noise.
For positive values of Q, it eliminates pepper
noise and for negative values of Q it eliminates
salt noise.
It reduces to arithmetic mean filter for Q = 0 and
harmonic mean filter for Q = -1.
Generally, the positive order filter cleans the
background, by blurring dark areas.
Contra harmonic mean filter

Arithmetic and geometric mean filters are
good for removing random noise like
Gaussian or uniform noise.
Contraharmonic filer is good for impulse
noise.
But it must be known before hand that
whether the noise is dark or light to fix the
Q value.
Pepper Noise
Contraharmonic mean filtered
% Contraharmonic mean filter

% Read a gray scale image and applay contraharmonic filter for verious Q
% values. prove that for negative values of Q salt noise is removed, for
% positive values of Q pepper noise is removed. check that
% for Q=0 it becomes mean filter and for Q=-1 it becomes harmonic filter.
f = imread('Peppercman.tif');
%f = imnoise(f,'salt & pepper',0.1);
f = im2double(f);
figure,imshow(f),title('Pepper Noise');
[m n]=size(f);
Q=1;
for i = 2:m-1
for j = 2:n-1
con=0; s1=0; s2=0;
for k1 = i-1:i+1
for p1 = j-1:j+1
con = con+1;
s1=s1+(f(k1,p1)^Q);
s2=s2+(f(k1,p1)^(Q+1));
end
end
b1(i,j)=s2/s1;
end
end
%subplot(1,2,2),imshow(b1),title('Cantraharmonic mean filtered');
figure,imshow(b1),title('Contraharmonic mean filtered');
Order Statistics Filter

These are spatial filters whose response is based on
ordering (ranking) the pixels in the image area
encompassed by the filter.
Median filter
Here we replace the value of a pixel by the median of the
gray values in the neighborhood of that pixel:
f(x,y) = median {g(s,t)}

The original value of the pixel is included in the
calculation of the median.
For some types of random noise, they give excellent
noise-reduction with less blurring than linear smoothing
filters of same size.
They work well with unipolar and bipolar impulse noises.
Salt & Pepper Noise
Aftter Median filter
Max and min filters

Median is the 50th percentile of a ranked set of numbers.
The 100th percentile results in max filter given as:
f(x,y) = max {g(s,t)}

This filter is useful in finding the brightest spots in an
image.
As pepper noise has very low intensity values, they are
reduced by this filter.
The 0th percentile filter is the min filter:
f(x,y) = min {g(s,t)}

this filter is capable of identifying the darkest points in an
image.
It reducecs salt noise as a result of min operation.
Noisy Image
Max filter
Noisy Image
Min filter
% Max and Min filters

% Read a gray scale image and add salt & pepper noise and remove the same
% with min filter and max filter.
f = imread('cameraman.tif');
f = imnoise(f,'salt & pepper',0.01);
f = im2double(f);
figure,imshow(f),title('Noisy Image');
[m n]=size(f);
Q=0;
for i = 2:m-1
for j = 1:n-1
con=0;
for k1 = i-1:i+1
for p1 = j-1:j+1
con = con+1;
s1(con)=(f(k1,p1));
end
end
b1(i,j)=min(s1);
b2(i,j)=max(s1);
end
end
%subplot(2,2,2),imshow(b1),title('Min filter');
%subplot(2,2,3),imshow(b2),title('Max filter');
figure,imshow(b1),title('Min filter');
figure,imshow(b2),title('Max filter');
Midpoint filter
This filter is simply the midpoint between
the maximum and minimum values in the
area enclosed by the filter:
f(x,y) = (1/2) * [ max {g(s,t)} + min {g(s,t)}]
This filter combines order statistic and
averaging.
It is good for randomly distributed noise,
like Gaussian or uniform noise.
Noisy Image
Midpoint filtered
% Midpoint filter
% Read a gray scale image and add gaussian noise and remove the noise using
% midpoint filter
f = imnoise(f,'gaussian',0,0.01);
f = im2double(f);
%subplot(1,2,1),imshow(f),title('Noisy Image');
[m n]=size(f);
Q=0;
for i = 2:m-1
for j = 2:n-1
con=0;
for k1 = i-1:i+1
for p1 = j-1:j+1
con = con+1;
s1(con)=(f(k1,p1));
end
end
b1=min(s1); b2=max(s1);
R_img(i,j)=(b1+b2)/2;
end
end
%subplot(1,2,2),imshow(R_img),title('Midpoint filtered');
figure,imshow(R_img),title('Midpoint filtered');
Alpha trimmed mean filter

Let us delete the d/2 lowest and the d/2 highest
gray-level values of g(s,t) in the neighborhood of
Sxy.
Let gr(s,t) represent the remaining (mn d ) pixels.
A filter formed by averaging these remaining pixels
is called an alpha-trimmed mean filter:
f(x,y) = (1/(mn-d))* gr(s,t)

Here the value of d can vary from 0 to (mn 1).
When d = 0, it reduces to arithmetic mean filter.
For d = (mn-1)/2, it becomes a median filter.
For other values of d, it is useful in situations
involving multiple types of noise, such as
combination of salt and pepper and Gaussian noise.
Noisy Image
Alpha-trimmed mean filter
% trimed mean filter. prove that for D=0 it becomes arithmetic mean filter
% and for d=(mn-1)/2 it becomes median filter. show that this filter
% removes combination of gaussian and salt & pepper noise.
f = im2double(f);
f = imnoise(f,'salt & pepper',0.1);
[m n]=size(f);
f1=zeros(m,n);
D = 4;
d = D/2;
for i=3:m-2
for j=3:n-2
con=0;
for k=i-2:i+2
for p=j-2:j+2
con=con+1;
s(con)=f(k,p);
end
end
s = sort(s);
r = (size(s,2)-d);
s1= s(d+1:r);
f1(i,j)= sum(s1)/(con-D);
end
end
Adaptive filters
The filters discussed above, do not worry about the
image characteristics.
Adaptive filters are one whose behavior changes based
on statistical characteristics of the image inside the filter
region defined by the m X n subimage.
Adaptive, local noise reduction filter
Mean and variance are the simple statistical feature of a
random variable.
They are related to the appearance of an image.
Mean gives a measure of average gray level in the
region over which the mean is computed and variance
gives a measure of average contrast in that region.
Response of a filter
The response of a filter at (x,y) depends
on:
g(x,y), the value of the noisy image at (x,y).
2, the variance of the noise corrupting the
image f(x,y)
mL, the local mean of the pixels in Sxy.
L2, the local variance of the pixels in S xy.
Behavior of a filter
The filter should behave as follows:
If 2 is zero, filter should return the value of
g(x,y).
If local variance is high relative to 2, the filter
should return a value close to g(x,y).
A high local variance is related with edges, and
should be preserved.
If the 2 variances are equal, the filter should
return the arithmetic mean value of the pixels in
Sxy.
An adaptive expression for obtaining f(x,y)
based on these assumptions is given as:
f(x,y) = g(x,y) (2 / L2) * [g(x,y) mL]

One needs to know or estimate the variance of
overall noise 2.
Other parameters are calculated from the pixels
in Sxy.
A general assumption is that 2 L2.
This is true because we assume that our noise
is additive and position independent as the
subimge is the subset of g(x,y).
Here if the estimate of 2 is too low, then the
algorithm will return an image that resembles the
original image as the correction factors are too
small.
If the estimates are too high, the ratio of the
variances need to be clipped at 1.0 and the
algorithm will subtract the man from the image
more frequently than it would normally do so.
If negative values are permitted, the image is
rescaled at the end and the result is a loss of
dynamic range.
Gaussian Noise Image
Adaptive Local Noise Filtered
% Read a gray scale image and add gaussian noise with 0 mean then apply
% the Adaptive local noise reduction filter.
f = im2double(f);
[m n]=size(f);
f1=zeros(m,n);
D = std2(f);
M = mean2(f);
for i=3:m-2
for j=3:n-2
con=0; s=0; s1=0;
for k=i-2:i+2
for p=j-2:j+2
con=con+1;
s = s+f(k,p);
s1(con)=f(k,p);
end
end
lm=s/con;
ld = std(s1);
if ld >0
f1(i,j) = f(i,j)-((D*(f(i,j)-lm)/ld));
else
f1(i,j) = f(i,j)-0;
end
end
end
figure,imshow(f),title('Gaussian Noise Image');
figure,imshow(f1),title('Adaptive Local Noise Filtered');
Adaptive median filter

The median filter works well if the spatial density of
impulse noise is not large (if Pa and Pb are less than 0.2).
But adaptive median filters can handle impulse noises of
greater strength.
Adaptive median filter preserve the detail while
smoothing nonimpulse noise, which is not done by
normal median filter.
The adaptive median filter changes (increases) the size
of Sxy during the filter operation.
The output of a median filter is a single value replacing
the value of the pixel at (x,y), the point at which the
window is centered.
Adaptive median filter

Let zmin, zmax = minimum and maximum
gray level value in Sxy
zmed = median of gray level value in Sxy
zxy = gray level at coordinates (x,y)
Smax = maximum allowed size of Sxy
Working of adaptive median filter

The adaptive median filter works in 2 levels,
called as level A and level B.
Level A : A1 = zmed - zmin
A2 = zmed zmax
If A1 > 0 AND A2 < 0, Go to level B
Else increase the window size
If window size Smax repeat level A
Else output zxy.

Level B : B1 = zxy - zmin
B2 = zxy zmax
If B1 > 0 AND B2 < 0, output zxy.
Else output z .

This algorithm does 3 things:
Removes slat and pepper noise (impulse noise)
Smoothing other non-impulsive noises.
Reduce distortion such as excessive thinning or
thickening of object boundaries.
The purpose of level A is to find if the median
filter output, zmed is an impulse (black and white)
or not. If the condition zmin < z med < zmax holds,
then z med cannot be an impulse noise.

Now we go to level B and test whether the
center pixel zxy itself is an impulse.
If B1 > 0 AND B2 < 0 is true, then zmin < zxy <
zmax and zxy cannot be an impulse.
Now the output of the algorithm is unchanged
pixel value zxy.
By not changing these intermediate level
points, distortion is reduced in the image.
If the condition B1 > 0 AND B2 < 0 is false, then
either zxy = zmin or zxy = zmax.
In both the cases, the value of the pixel is an
extreme value and the algorithm outputs the
median value zmed which we know from level A is
not a noise impulse.
Noise Image
After filtering

Image Restoration 1

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Image Restoration 1

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Image Restoration

The main aim of restoration is to improve an

Model of Image Degradation /

Model of Image Degradation /

g(x,y) = h(x,y)*f(x,y) + (x,y)

G(u,v) = H(u,v)F(u,v) + N(u,v)

Noise Probability Density Functions

p(z) = (1/sqrt(2**)).exp (-(z-)2/2* 2)

Erlang (Gamma) noise

p(z) = -------- e-az

= (b/a) and 2 = (b/a2).

% noise of certain mean value,standard deviation and certain percentage.

p(z) = ae-az for z 0

Impulse ( salt and pepper) noise

% Salt & pepper noise noise

Restoring Noisy images in spatial

f(x,y) = (1/mn) * g(s,t)

Geometric mean filter

f(x,y) = [ g(s,t) ]1/mn

Geometric mean filtered

Harmonic mean filter

This filter can be given by:

Harmonic mean filtered

% Harmonic mean filter

Contra harmonic mean filter

f(x,y) = g(s,t)Q+1/ g(s,t)Q

Contra harmonic mean filter

Contraharmonic mean filtered

% Contraharmonic mean filter

Order Statistics Filter

f(x,y) = median {g(s,t)}

Salt & Pepper Noise

Aftter Median filter

Max and min filters

f(x,y) = max {g(s,t)}

f(x,y) = min {g(s,t)}

% Max and Min filters

Alpha trimmed mean filter

f(x,y) = (1/(mn-d))* gr(s,t)

Alpha-trimmed mean filter

f(x,y) = g(x,y) (2 / L2) * [g(x,y) mL]

Gaussian Noise Image

Adaptive Local Noise Filtered

Adaptive median filter

Adaptive median filter

Working of adaptive median filter

If A1 > 0 AND A2 < 0, Go to level B

Else increase the window size

If window size Smax repeat level A

Else output zxy.

If B1 > 0 AND B2 < 0, output zxy.

Working of adaptive median filter

Working of adaptive median filter

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