WEC

ME- 305
Production Engineering
Credit Hours
Theory + Practical
(3)
(1)
1
12/02/16

Abrasive machining and

Finishing Operations

Module 4

Abrasive Machining Processes

Abrasive machining is one of the

oldest forms of metal removal. It is
also one of the most important.
Abrasive machining can produce
surface finishes ranging from rough
to extremely fine.
Abrasive machining is a process
where chips are formed by small
cutting edges on abrasive particles.

Abrasive Machining

Abrasive machining is a machining

process where material is removed
from a workpiece using a multitude
of small abrasive particles.
Common examples include grinding,
honing, and polishing.
Abrasive processes are usually
expensive, but capable of tighter
tolerances and better surface finish
than other machining processes.

Applications

Manufactured products which are

candidates for abrasive machining include:
Hard to machine metals such as super alloys or
heat treated tool steels
Parts which have closes tolerances

Size (+/- .0005)

Parallelism
Flatness

Sheet type products such as:

Plywood, thin stainless steels, and decorative plaque

material

Process Characteristics

Abrasive machining has two

unique characteristics:
Small cutting edges cut
simultaneously.
The abrasives used are very hard and
capable of cutting materials in the
range of Rc45 and above

Mechanics of abrasive
machining

Abrasive machining works by forcing the abrasive

particles, or grains, into the surface of the
workpiece so that each particle cuts away a small
bit of material.
Abrasive machining is similar to conventional
machining, such as milling or turning, because
each of the abrasive particles acts like a miniature
cutting tool.
However, unlike conventional machining the
grains are much smaller than a cutting tool, and
the geometry and orientation of individual grains
are not well defined.
As a result, abrasive machining is less power
efficient and generates more heat.

Abrasives

The most important property of an abrasive is its

hardness. For abrasive grains to effectively cut, they
must be significantly harder than the workpiece
material. They can be grouped based on their
hardness into two categories: conventional
abrasives and superabrasives.
Conventional abrasive materials have been used by
man since the advent of machining. They are made
of materials that exist naturally on Earth, and they
are abundant and cheap. Conventional abrasives
can suitably machine most materials.
Superabrasives are much harder than conventional
abrasives. Since they are much more expensive,
they are used when conventional abrasives will not
suffice.

Abrasives

Common abrasives are listed below.

Conventional
Aluminum oxide (Corundum)
Silicon carbide
Emery
Pumice
Sand
Steel abrasive
Superabrasives
Diamond
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN), Borazon

Abrasives

Abrasives can be natural or

manmade.
Natural include:
Sand stone
Emery
Diamond
Garnet
Quartz

Abrasives
Manmade (1891 time frame most
commonly used today)
Silicon Carbide
Aluminum Oxide
Cubic Boron Nitride

Abrasive Grain Size

Grains are separated by mechanical

sieving machines. The number of
openings per linear inch in the sieve(or
screen) through which the particles can
pass determines the grain size.
Typical classifications:
Course, medium, and fine
Silicon Carbides range from 2-240 in size
Aluminum Oxides range from 4-240 in size
600 range are generally used in honing or lapping
operations

Abrasive Grain Size

Forms

Abrasive particles can be:

A Free slurry
Adhered to resin on a belt
Close packed into wheels or stones held
together by a bonding agent.

Forms

Conventional Abrasive Aluminium oxide

It is widely used as a coarse or fine abrasive,

including as a much less expensive substitute for
industrial diamond. Many types of sandpaper use
aluminium oxide crystals. In addition, its low heat
retention and low specific heat make it widely
used in grinding operations, particularly cutoff
tools. As the powdery abrasive mineral aloxite, it
is a major component, along with silica, of the
cue tip "chalk" used in billiards. Aluminium oxide
powder is used in some CD/DVD polishing and
scratch-repair kits. Its polishing qualities are also
behind its use in toothpaste.

Conventional Abrasive Aluminium oxide

Conventional Abrasive
Silicon carbide

In the arts, silicon carbide is a popular abrasive in

modern lapidary due to the durability and low
cost of the material. In manufacturing, it is used
for its hardness in abrasive machining processes
such as grinding, honing, water-jet cutting and
sandblasting. Particles of silicon carbide are
laminated to paper to create sandpapers and the
grip tape on skateboards.[26]Like other hard
ceramics (namely alumina and boron carbide),
silicon carbide is used in composite armor (e.g.,
Chobham armor), and in ceramic plates in
bulletproof vests. Dragon Skin, which is produced
by Pinnacle Armor, uses disks of silicon carbide

Conventional Abrasive
Silicon carbide

Conventional Abrasive
Emery

Emery is a very hard rock type used to make

abrasive powder. It largely consists of the mineral
corundum (aluminum oxide), mixed with other
species such as the iron-bearing spinels hercynite
and magnetite, and also rutile (titania). Industrial
emery may contain a variety of other minerals and
synthetic compounds such as magnesia, mullite,
and silica.
Emery paper is a type of paper that can be used
for sanding down hard and rough surfaces. It can
also be used for resistant technology purposes to
give a smooth, shiny finish to manufactured
products and is often used in the finishing of highend watch movements. Similar to sandpaper, it is
made by gluing small particles of the mineral emery
(also called iron spinel or hercynite) to paper.

Conventional Abrasive
Pumice

Pumice is a textural term for a volcanic rock that is a

solidified frothy lava typically created when super-heated,
highly pressurized rock is violently ejected from a volcano. It
can be formed when lava and water are mixed. This unusual
formation is due to the simultaneous actions of rapid cooling
and rapid depressurization. The depressurization creates
bubbles by lowering the solubility of gases (including water
and CO2) dissolved in the lava, so that they rapidly exsolve
(like the bubbles of CO2 that appear when a carbonated drink
is opened). The simultaneous cooling then freezes the
bubbles in the matrix.
It is also used as an abrasive, especially in polishes, pencil
erasers, cosmetic exfoliants, and to produce stone-washed
jeans. "Pumice stones" are often used in beauty salons during
the pedicure process to remove dry and excess skin from the
bottom of the foot as well as calluses. It was also used in
ancient Greek and Roman times to remove excess hair. Finely
ground pumice is added to some toothpastes and heavy-duty
hand cleaners (such as Lava soap) as a mild abrasive.

Conventional Abrasive
Pumice

Conventional Abrasive
Sand

Sand is a naturally occurring

granular material composed of finely
divided rock and mineral particles.
Sandblasting: Graded sand serves as
an abrasive in cleaning, preparing,
and polishing.

Conventional Abrasive
Sand

Conventional Abrasive
Steel Abrasives

Steel abrasives are loose particles that are

propelled at high velocities for blast cleaning or to
improve the properties of metal surfaces.[1] They
are usually available in two different shapes ("shot"
and "grit') that address different industrial
applications.
Steel shot refers to spherical grains made of molten
steel through an atomization ("granulation")
process, available in different sizes and hardnesses.
Steel grit characterizes grains with a predominantly
angular shape. These grains are obtained by
crushing steel shot, therefore they exhibit sharp
edges and broken sections. Harder than steel shot, it
is also available in different sizes and hardnesses.

Conventional Abrasive
Steel Abrasives
Industrial Applications
Cleaning

Steel shot and grit are used in cleaning applications for removal of loose material on
metal surfaces. This type of cleaning is common in automotive industry (motor
blocks, cylinder heads, etc.).

Surface preparation

Surface preparation is as a series of operations including cleaning and physical

modification of a surface. Steel shot and grit are used in surface preparation process
for cleaning metal surfaces which are covered with mill scale, dirt, rust, or paint
coatings and for physically modifying the metal surface such as creating roughness
for better application of paint and coating.[4]

Stone cutting

Steel grit is used in cutting hard stones, such as granite. The grit is used in large
multi-blade frames which cut the blocks of granite into thin slices.

Shot peening

Shot peening is the repeated striking of a metal surface by hard shot particles. These
multiple impacts produce a deformation on the metal surface but also improve the
durability of the metal part. The media used in this application is spherical rather
than angular. The reason is that spherical shots are more resistant to the fracture
which happens due to the striking impact.

Superabrasives
Diamond

In mineralogy, diamond (from the ancient Greek

admas "unbreakable") is an allotrope of carbon,
where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation
of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a
diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than
graphite, but the conversion rate from diamond to
graphite is negligible at ambient conditions.
Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative
physical qualities, most of which originate from the
strong covalent bonding between its atoms. In
particular, diamond has the highest hardness and
thermal conductivity of any bulk material. Those
properties determine the major industrial
application of diamond in cutting and polishing
tools.

Superabrasives
Diamond

Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated

with their hardness; this property makes diamond the ideal
material for cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest
known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used
to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other
diamonds. Common industrial adaptations of this ability
include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, and the use of
diamond powder as an abrasive. Less expensive industrialgrade diamonds, known as bort, with more flaws and
poorer color than gems, are used for such purposes.[80]
Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high
speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at the high
temperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to
greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to
alternatives.

Superabrasives
Diamond

Superabrasives
Diamond

A scalpel with synthetic diamond

blade

Close-up photograph of an
angle grinder blade with tiny
diamonds shown embedded in
the metal

Superabrasives
Boron Nitride

Boron nitride is a chemical compound

with chemical formula BN, consisting of
equal numbers of boron and nitrogen
atoms. BN is isoelectronic to a similarly
structured carbon lattice and thus exists in
various crystalline forms. The
hexagonal form corresponding to graphite
is the most stable and softest among BN
polymorphs, and is therefore used as a
lubricant and an additive to cosmetic
products

Superabrasives
Boron Nitride

Cubic boron nitride (CBN or c-BN) is widely used as an abrasive. Its

usefulness arises from its insolubility in iron, nickel, and related alloys at
high temperatures, whereas diamond is soluble in these metals to give
carbides. Polycrystalline c-BN (PCBN) abrasives are therefore used for
machining steel, whereas diamond abrasives are preferred for aluminum
alloys, ceramics, and stone. When in contact with oxygen at high
temperatures, BN forms a passivation layer of boron oxide.
Boron nitride binds well with metals, due to formation of interlayers of
metal borides or nitrides. Materials with cubic boron nitride crystals are
often used in the tool bits of cutting tools. For grinding applications, softer
binders, e.g. resin, porous ceramics, and soft metals, are used. Ceramic
binders can be used as well. Commercial products are known under names
"Borazon" (by Diamond Innovations), and "Elbor" or "Cubonite" (by Russian
vendors). Similar to diamond, the combination in c-BN of highest thermal
conductivity and electrical resistivity is ideal for heat spreaders. Contrary to
diamond, large c-BN pellets can be produced in a simple process (called
sintering) of annealing c-BN powders in nitrogen flow at temperatures
slightly below the BN decomposition temperature. This ability of c-BN and
h-BN powders to fuse allows cheap production of large BN parts.
As cubic boron nitride consists of light atoms and is very robust chemically
and mechanically, it is one of the popular materials for X-ray membranes:
low mass results in small X-ray absorption, and good mechanical properties
allow usage of thin membranes, thus further reducing the absorption.

Abrasive machining processes

Abrasive machining processes can be divided into

two categories based on how the grains are
applied to the workpiece.
In BONDED ABRASIVE PROCESSES, the particles are
held together within a matrix, and their combined shape
determines the geometry of the finished workpiece. For
example, in grinding the particles are bonded together
in a wheel. As the grinding wheel is fed into the part, its
shape is transferred onto the workpiece.
In LOOSE ABRASIVE PROCESSES, there is no
structure connecting the grains. They may be applied
without lubrication as dry powder, or they may be mixed
with a lubricant to form a slurry. Since the grains can
move independently, they must be forced into the
workpiece with another object like a polishing cloth or a
lapping plate.

Abrasive machining processes

Common abrasive processes are listed below.

Bonded abrasive processes

Grinding
Honing, superfinishing
Tape finishing, abrasive belt machining
Buffing, brushing
Abrasive sawing, Diamond wire cutting, Wire saw
Sanding

Loose abrasive processes

Polishing
Lapping
Abrasive flow machining (AFM)
Hydro-erosive grinding
Water-jet cutting
Abrasive blasting
Mass finishing, tumbling

Open barrel tumbling

Vibratory bowl tumbling
Centrifugal disc tumbling
Centrifugal barrel tumbling

Bonded Abrasive Process

One process, which utilizes abrasive

machining, is the grinding process.
Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses
a grinding wheel as the cutting tool.
A machining process where the abrasives used are
bonded together into a wheel. The grinding wheel
is the cutting tool in this process. In grinding, high
precision and tight tolerances are possible. Typical
tolerances associated with this process are +/- .
0001. Product examples include bearings,
machining fixtures, shafts, and precision
measurement gauges.

Grinding

Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of

manufacturing and toolmaking. It can produce
very fine finishes and very accurate dimensions;
yet in mass production contexts it can also rough
out large volumes of metal quite rapidly. It is
usually better suited to the machining of very hard
materials than is "regular" machining (that is,
cutting larger chips with cutting tools such as
tool bits or milling cutters), and until recent
decades it was the only practical way to machine
such materials as hardened steels. Compared to
"regular" machining, it is usually better suited to
taking very shallow cuts, such as reducing a
shaft's diameter by half a thousand of an inch
(thou).(1 thou == 25 um)

Grinding

Technically, grinding is a subset of cutting, as grinding is a

true metalcutting process. Each grain of abrasive functions
as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high
negative rake angle), and shears a tiny chip that is
analogous to what would conventionally be called a "cut"
chip (turning, milling, drilling, tapping, etc.). However,
among people who work in the machining fields, the term
cutting is often understood to refer to the macroscopic
cutting operations, and grinding is often mentally
categorized as a "separate" process. This is why the terms
are usually used in contradistinction in shop-floor practice,
even though technically grinding is a subset of cutting.
Similar abrasive cutting processes are lapping and sanding.

Chip Formation

Chips in this process are formed by the

same mechanism of compression and
shear as other machining processes.
As the grains or abrasives become dull,
the cutting forces increase. The increase
in the cutting force causes the grains to
plow and rub rather than cut. As the
plowing and rubbing increases, the grains
fracture at the cutting edge to revile a new
cutting edge.

Chip Formation

The Tool: Grinding Wheels

A grinding wheel is an expendable wheel used for various grinding

and abrasive machining operations. It is generally made from a
matrix of coarse abrasive particles pressed and bonded together to
form a solid, circular shape, various profiles and cross sections are
available depending on the intended usage for the wheel. Grinding
wheels may also be made from a solid steel or aluminium disc with
particles bonded to the surface.
The spacing of particles with respect to one another is called the
structure of the wheel. Wheel structure can be open, medium, or
dense.
Dense structure is used for hard materials, for high speed
grinding operations, and also for producing fine finishes and
tight tolerances.
Open structure is used for high contact area, grinding of tough
materials, and high stock removal rates.

Hardness - resistance to penetration

Toughness - ability of a metal to absorb energy without failure.

The Tool: Grinding Wheels

The Tool: Grinding Wheels

The Tool: Grinding Wheels

Sketch of how abrasive particles in a grinding

wheel remove material from a workpiece.

Characteristics

There are five characteristics of a

cutting wheel:
Material,
Grain size,
Wheel grade,
Grain spacing, and
Bond type.

They will be indicated by codes on

the wheel's label.

Characteristics

Material, the actual abrasive, is selected

according to the hardness of the material being
cut.

Aluminum Oxide (A)

Silicon Carbide (C)
Diamond (D, MD, SD)
Cubic Boron Nitride (B)

Grain size, from 8 (coarsest) 600 (finest),

determines the physical size of the abrasive
grains in the wheel. A larger grain will cut freely,
allowing fast cutting but poor surface finish.
Ultra-fine grain sizes are for precision finish work.

Characteristics

Wheel grade, from A (soft) to Z (hard),

determines how tightly the bond holds the
abrasive. Grade affects almost all considerations
of grinding, such as wheel speed, coolant flow,
maximum and minimum feed rates, and grinding
depth.
Grain spacing, or structure, from 1 (densest) to
16 (least dense). Density is the ratio of bond and
abrasive to air space. A less-dense wheel will cut
freely, and has a large effect on surface finish. It
is also able to take a deeper or wider cut with
less coolant, as the chip clearance on the wheel is
greater.

Characteristics

Wheel bond, how the wheel holds the

abrasives, affects finish, coolant, and
minimum/maximum wheel speed.

Vitrified (V)
Resinoid (R)
Silicate (S)
Shellac (E)
Rubber (R)
Oxychloride (O)

Types
Straight wheel
To the right is an image of a straight wheel. These are by
far the most common style of wheel and can be found on
bench or pedestal grinders. They are used on the periphery
only and therefore produce a slightly concave surface
(hollow ground) on the part. This can be used to advantage
on many tools such as chisels.
Straight Wheels are the kind of generally used for
cylindrical, centreless, and surface grinding operations.
Wheels of this form vary greatly in size, the diameter and
width of face naturally depending upon the class of work for
which is used and the size and power of the grinding
machine.

Types
Cylinder or wheel ring

Cylinder wheels provide a long, wide surface with no center

mounting support (hollow). They can be very large, up to 12" in
width. They are used only in vertical or horizontal spindle
grinders. Cylinder or wheel ring is used for producing flat
surfaces, the grinding being done with the end face of the wheel.
Tapered wheel

A straight wheel that tapers outward towards the center of the

wheel. This arrangement is stronger than straight wheels and can
accept higher lateral loads. Tapered face straight wheel is
primarily used for grinding thread, gear teeth etc.
Straight cup

Straight cup wheels are an alternative to cup wheels in tool and

cutter grinders, where having an additional radial grinding surface
is beneficial.

Types
Dish cup
A very shallow cup-style grinding wheel.
The thinness allows grinding in slots and
crevices. It is used primarily in cutter
grinding and jig grinding.
Saucer wheel
A special grinding profile that is used to
grind milling cutters and twist drills. It is
most common in non-machining areas, as
sawfilers use saucer wheels in the
maintenance of saw blades.

Types
Diamond wheel
Diamond wheels are grinding wheels with
industrial diamonds bonded to the
periphery.
They are used for grinding extremely hard
materials such as carbide cutting tips,
gemstones or concrete. The saw pictured
to the right is a slitting saw and is
designed for slicing hard materials,
typically gemstones.

Types
Diamond mandrels
Diamond mandrels are very similar to their
counterpart, a diamond wheel. They are tiny
diamond rasps for use in a jig grinder doing
profiling work in hard material.
Cut off wheels
Cut off wheels, also known as parting wheels, are
self-sharpening wheels that are thin in width and
often have radial fibres reinforcing them. They
are often used in the construction industry for
cutting reinforcement bars (rebar), protruding
bolts or anything that needs quick removal or
trimming. Most handymen would recognise an
angle grinder and the discs they use.

Wheel Bonding Agents

Vitrified - composed of clay and other

ceramic substances. Abrasive
particles are mixed with wheel
material then pressed together and
fired in a kiln.
Resiniod or phonolic - Plastic
compound wheels designed for a wide
variety of applications. This is a bit
more flexible than other wheels.

Wheel Bonding Agents

Silicate - This bond uses silicate of soda as

the bonding agent. Wheels are formed
then baked at 500F for a day or longer.
They are not as strong as vitrified-bonded
wheels. Because they are not as strong,
abrasive grains fracture more easily. This
results in lower operating temperatures
which can be a positive factor depending
on the application of the wheel.

Wheel Bonding Agents

Shellac - Abrasives are mixed with

shellac, heated (330 F) and pressed or
rolled into the desired shape. These
wheels are thin, elastic, and strong.
Rubber - High speed wheels with a
considerable amount of flexibility.
Typically these wheels will operate at
speeds of up to 16,000 ft/min.

Wheel Forms

Wheel Classification

Grinding Wheel Operating

Procedures

Truing - Restores the original geometry to

the grinding wheel. It also can be used to
ensure the wheel is running concentric
with the spindle of the grinding machine.
Dressing - Exposes a new cutting surface
on the grinding wheel.
Balancing - Typically performed on large
and diamond wheels this procedure
ensures the wheel is running true with the
axis of rotation.

Grinding Wheel Operating

Procedures

Cutting Fluid

Cutting fluid is an important factor in

the grinding process.
It assists in:
Washing away chips,
Keeping the wheel from becoming
clogged,
Reduces operating temperatures.

Cutting Fluid

The use of fluids in a grinding process is

necessary to cool and lubricate the wheel
and workpiece as well as remove the chips
produced in the grinding process. The
most common grinding fluids are watersoluble chemical fluids, water-soluble oils,
synthetic oils, and petroleum-based oils. It
is imperative that the fluid be applied
directly to the cutting area to prevent the
fluid being blown away from the piece due
to rapid rotation of the wheel.

The workpiece
Workholding methods
The workpiece is manually clamped to a lathe
dog, powered by the faceplate, that holds the
piece in between two centers and rotates the
piece. The piece and the grinding wheel rotate in
opposite directions and small bits of the piece are
removed as it passes along the grinding wheel. In
some instances special drive centers may be used
to allow the edges to be ground. The workholding
method affects the production time as it changes
set up times.

The workpiece
Workpiece materials
Typical workpiece materials include
aluminum, brass, plastics, cast iron, mild
steel, and stainless steel. Aluminum, brass
and plastics can have poor to fair
machinability characteristics for cylindrical
grinding. Cast Iron and mild steel have
very good characteristics for cylindrical
grinding. Stainless steel is very difficult to
grind due to its toughness and ability to
work harden, but can be worked with the
right grade of grinding wheels.

The workpiece
Workpiece geometry
The final shape of a workpiece is the mirror
image of the grinding wheel, with cylindrical
wheels creating cylindrical pieces and formed
wheels creating formed pieces. Typical sizes on
workpieces range from .75 in. to 20 in. (metric:
18mm to 1 m) and .80 in. to 75 in. in length
(metric: 2 cm to 4 m), although pieces between .
25 in. and 60 in. in diameter (metric: 6 mm to
1.5 m) and .30 in. and 100 in. in length (metric:
8 mm to 2.5 m) can be ground. Resulting shapes
can range from straight cylinders, straight edged
conical shapes, or even crankshafts for engines
that experience relatively low torque.

The workpiece
Effects on Workpiece Materials
Mechanical properties will change due to stresses
put on the part during finishing. High grinding
temperatures may cause a thin martensitic layer
to form on the part, which will lead to reduced
material strength from microcracks.
Physical property changes include the possible
loss of magnetic properties on ferromagnetic
materials.
Chemical property changes include an increased
susceptibility to corrosion because of high surface
stress.

Safety

Before mounting and balancing a grinding wheel,

the wheel must be sounded. Sounding, also
known as a ring check, is loosely suspending the
wheel by a bit of twine or other material so that it
hangs free, and giving the wheel a very light tap
with a non metallic object, such as a wooden
stick. Care must be taken not to damage the
wheel when sounding. A wheel that is safe to use
will ring clearly and solidly, like a bell or tuning
fork. A damaged wheel will not make any
resonating sound, it will sound more like a dull
thud

Safety

The clamping force of the grinding wheel

flanges is an important safety parameter
of a grinding operation:
It must be high enough to drive the wheel
without slippage under the most severe
operating conditions of the machine.
It must not apply to the wheel an excessive
compression stress which could weaken the
wheel.
It must not distort the flanges.

Grinding Machines

A wide variety of machines are used for

grinding:
Hand-cranked knife-sharpening stones
(grindstones)
Handheld power tools such as angle
grinders and die grinders
Various kinds of expensive industrial
machine tools called grinding machines
Bench grinders often found in residential
garages and basements

Grinding Machines

Machine tools in this process are

classified by the type of surface they
produce.
Typical classifications include:
Surface
Cylindrical

OD and ID

Grinding machines

Grinding Machines

2
3

Grinding Machines

Grinding Operations

Operations include:

Cutting off - Slicing or slotting

Cylindrical between cntrs. - OD of cylindrical
parts
Cylindrical centerless - OD of cylindrical parts
with a regulating wheel
Internal - Bores and large holes
Snagging - Large amounts of material no
surface finish requirements
Surface - Flat workpieces
Tool grinding - Grinding cutting edges on
tools
Off-hand grinding - tool or work held by hand

Grinding Machines

Grinding operation on all machines

can be accomplished in three ways:
In-feed - moving the wheel into the
work
Cross feed - traversing the wheel across
the work
Plunge feed - wheel is forced in on the
radius of the work. This is similar to
form turning on a lathe.

Ultrasonic machining
Ultrasonic machining, also known as
ultrasonic impact grinding is a
machining operation in which an abrasive
slurry freely flows between the workpiece
and a vibrating tool. It differs from most
other machining operations because very
little heat is produced. The tool never
contacts the workpiece and as a result the
grinding pressure is rarely more than 2
pounds,[1] which makes this operation
perfect for machining extremely hard and
brittle materials, such as glass, sapphire,
ruby, diamond, and ceramics.

Schematic of the ultrasonic

machining operation

Surface finish

The surface finish of ultrasonic machining

depends upon the hardness of the
workpiece/tool and the average diameter of
the abrasive grain used. Up close, this
process simply utilizes the plastic
deformation of metal for the tool and the
brittleness of the workpiece. As the tool
vibrates, it pushes down on the abrasive
slurry (containing many grains) till the
grains impact the brittle workpiece. The
workpiece is broken down while the tool
bends very slightly. Commonly used tool
material consist of nickel and soft steels

Machine time

Machine time depends upon the frequency

at which the tool is vibrating, the grain
size and hardness (which must be equal or
greater than the hardness of the
workpiece), and the viscosity of the slurry
fluid. Common grain materials used are
silicon carbide and boron carbide, because
of their hardness. The less viscous the
slurry fluid, the faster it can carry away
used abrasive.