Circulating portion of the extracellular fluid; 25%

of total ECF
Acts as buffer between cells and external
environment
Carries nutrients, waste, fluid, signaling molecules
Capable of partial repair of holes, fighting
infection, detoxification
Two main components:
1. Plasma
2. Cells
Red blood cells - erythrocytes
White blood cells - glanulocytes; lymphocytes

What do you know?

When referring to a mixture of gasses, we say that each gas
has its own partial pressure. What does this mean?
What is the percentage of O2 in the air that we breathe?
What is the percentage in the air on top of Mt. Everest?
What effects do the following have on O2 binding to
hemoglobin?
Temperature increase
Increase in altitude + additional 2,3 DPG
Increased H+ concentration

Gas Laws Govern O2 and CO2 Saturation of Blood

1. Daltons Law - total pressure of a mixture of gases = sum of
pressures of individual gases in the mix

pressure of a single gas in the mixture = partial pressure

2. Boyles Law P = 1/V; this is what increases and decreases

partial pressures as the lungs inflate and deflate with each breath

3. Gases move from an

area of high pressure
toward an area of
low pressure

4. Henrys Law the amount

of gas that will dissolve in a
liquid is determined by the
partial pressure of the gas
and the gass solubility in
the liquid.
O2 is not very soluble in water
Why?

 CO2 has good solubility in water, therefore there will be a greater

partial pressure of CO2 in plasma than partial pressure of O2.
Results:
Blood must find a better mechanism for carrying O2 to and from the
tissues.
CO2 can be carried in the plasma, on RBCs or is converted to
bicarbonate.

CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3-

Mature RBCs are a membrane-bound bag of proteins, 90% of which is hemoglobin. Their
lifespan is about 120 days. They are destroyed principally in the spleen.
The iron prosthetic group in each hemoglobin can carry 1 oxygen molecule, and there are 4
heme (iron) groups per hemoglobin molecule.
Oxygen binds reversibly to hemoglobin
RBCs also carry about 95% of the CO2 produced in the body, either directly on the
hemoglobin molecule, or by converting it to H+ and HCO3- with the enzyme carbonic
anhydrase.

Control of O2 Carrying Capacity of RBCs

1. Presence of factors thought to regulate survival, proliferation and
differentiation of RBCs and their precursors. These include:
erythropoietin (EPO), interleukins, and growth factors.
2. Oxygen deficiency (hypoxia); increases the release of EPO and the
production of more RBCs.
3. The partial pressure of O2
4. Temperature
5. The presence of 2,3-DPG
6. A change in pH
With deoxygenation the 12 interface tightens lessening the affinity of Hgb for oxygen. This
conformation is stabilized by proton binding and 2,3-DPG.
Decreasing pH strengthens the 12 interface, stabilizing the low-affinity conformation and releasing
O2 . 2,3-DPG binds to hemoglobin, forming a link at the 12 interface. This results in a stable low

This graph describes the

loading of O2 onto
hemoglobin.
Why is the curve not
linear?
How saturated is
hemoglobin at an O2
partial pressure of 40
mm Hg? Where would you
find this partial pressure of O2?

How saturated is
hemoglobin at an O2
partial pressure of 100
mm Hg? Where would you
find this partial pressure of O2?

 What is the effect of

increased termperature on
the saturation of
hemoglobin at the lungs?
At the level of the tissues?
Why do you think this
happens?

 Chronic hypoxia triggers an

increase in 2,3-DPG in
RBCs
2,3-DPG lowers the
binding affinity of O2 for
hemoglobin; this shifts the
curve to the right.
After prolonged exposure to
high altitude, what effect
will increased 2,3-DPG
have on O2 delivery?

 Decreasing pH shifts the

saturation curve to the right

Why does this occur?

When you are running

sprints, what effect will this
have on O2 delivery?

 Stem cells are

influenced by different
trophic factors to
differentiate into the
different classes of
blood cells

Some of the trophic factors

include:
1.Thrombopoietin (Liver)
2.Interleukin 3 (T lymphocytes)
3.Erythropoietin (kidney cells)
4.Colony stimulating factor
(endothelial cells and
fibroblasts of bone marrow)
5.Granulocyte, macrophage
colony stimulating factor
(endothelial cells and
fibroblasts of bone marrow)
6.Macrophage colony
stimulating factor
7.Granulocyte colony
stimulating factor

Cell Differentiation (modification of structure and function during

the course of development)
ERYTHROPOIESIS = Differentiation of RBCs; general events are a
decrease in the size of cells, a decrease in the size of the nucleus,
and an increase in nuclear staining from pink to purple.
Stages:
1. Pluripotent stem cell responds to two
growth factors IL3 and erythropoietin
2. Proerythroblasts formed
3. Basophilic erythroblast increased
polyribosomes; can synthesize
hemoglobin
4. Polychromatophilic erythroblast
hemoglobin begins to form pink staining
spots in the basophilic cytoplasm
5. Normoblast loss of basophilic
granules; extrusion of polyribosomes
6. Erythrocyte nucleus is extruded

Neutrophil
Most abundant of the white blood
cells; 40-75% of the circulating
WBCs
Highly motile; phagocytic
Important in the early phases of
immune response and in injury repair

Eosinophil
The granules contain peroxidase and several other
lysosomal enzymes
Plays a role in allergic reactions and stress
Are attracted to areas of antigen-antibody
interaction by chemotaxis; phagocytize antigenantibody complexes at these sites
Also may be involved in phagocytosis of large
parasites
Are found at sites of tumor formation; release IL4,
a potent antitumor agent.

Basophils and Mast Cells

Granules contain heparin, histamine and other vasoactive substances
Basophils and mast cells share many characteristics. Mast cells are sometimes called tissue basophils
because they are located only in tissues.
Have IgE antibodies in their cell membranes; upon exposure to antigen, degranulate anaphylactic or
hypersensitivity reaction
Mast cells are found beneath epithelia, around blood vessels, and lining serous cavities. Can
proliferate in the tissues after interacting with T lymphocytes

Lymphocytes
Second most numerous WBC; numbers increase with
viral insult
Two main types; T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes
Active in cell mediated and antibody mediated
immunity

Monocytes/Macrophages
Largest of the leukocytes
Monocytes are precursors to macrophages
Macrophages are phagocytic and respond to hormonal and
other cellular signals; cytoplasm my be vacuolated
Macrophages are antigen presenting cells and their
numbers are depressed by corticosteroids

Platelets
Small, disc-shaped cells without a nucleus
Formed by cytoplasmic fragmentation of megakaryocytes
Have most organelles and granules that contain serotonin, coagulation factors,
lysosomal enzymes and peroxidase
Are involved in agglutination and blood clotting (agglutination is the tendency of
platelets to stick together at the site of an injury to the endothelium of blood vessels)