CHAPTER 2 SUBSTRUCTURE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Building foundation - types and functions
2.3 Deep Foundation
spun pile, micro pile, bakau pile,
bore pile and pile cap
2.4 Shallow Foundation
pad footing, raft foundation,
strip foundation
2.5 Column, stump, ground beam

What is Substructure?
The lowest portion of the building structure.
Usually located below the ground level.
A foundation is a part of the structure which is
in direct contact with the ground to which the
loads are transmitted.

Main functions of the foundations

To distribute the load of the structure over
a larger area.
To transmit the load uniformly under the
structure.
To provide a firm, level and strong base
over which the superstructure may be
constructed.

Main functions of the foundations

To avoid any settlement or other movement
that can cause damage to any part of the
building (a stable foundation should bear
the loads without sinking or settling more
than an inch at the most).
To increase the stability of the structure by
preventing its tilting or overturning against
winds, earthquakes and uneven distribution
of live load (Lateral Stability).

Load Distribution
Load

Ground Level

45o

Type of foundation is selected based

on
Loading of the building, big load need big
foundation such as raft foundation or piling
Types of soil such as peat soil prefer piling
or deep foundation
Economical / financial for number of
building or story (pad footing or pilling)

Type of foundation is selected based

on
The loads that must be transferred from
the structure to the soil strata supporting it.
This also should evaluate the ability of the
soil to support the ultimate loads.
The capability of the structure that will
safely transfer the loads from the
superstructure to the foundation bed.

Type of foundation is selected based

on
The possibility and extent of settlement of
the soil due to the presence of mines and
quarries in the vicinity.
The ability for engineers to fix the depth of
the foundation.
The ability to determine if the underground
water has sulfates or other salts that can
degrade the foundation materials.

Factors That Need To Be Considered

in the Foundation Design
For more safety precaution use factor of
safety FOS 3
Increase number of bore hole or suffient
number of borehole so that the result of the
report is more accurate.
Choose the critical point load for borehole
Every end of the building
Supervise the S.I properly make sure no
mistake

Factors That Need To Be Considered

in the Foundation Design
For the safety of the foundation design use
the lowest of bearing capacity value
The engineer must have good enough data
for the S.I such as previous soil report,
cutting or filling area.
Engineer also must make sure the original
ground level and purposed level or
formation level while designing the
foundation.

Factors That Need To Be Considered

in the Foundation Design
The correct parameter is important to
prevent from foundation failure that may
occur causing building collapse. It will
cause a big loss of material and even
peoples life.

Highland Tower Collapse

Types of Foundation
Shallow foundation : Spread Footings.
Square Pad Footing.
Raft Foundation.
Deep foundation : Pile.
Bored pile.
Micro pile.

Strip Foundation
This type of foundation is also known as
wall foundation or continues spread
footing foundation.
It uses is to support load bearing wall.

Continuous Spread Footing

 This type of
footing is
commonly
used to
support the
walls of
aboveground
circular
storage
tanks

Foundations
Definition:
A foundation is a part of the structure which is in direct contact with
the ground to which the loads are transmitted.

Every structure, whether big or small, needs a foundation.

The foundation carries the load of the building and provides it

stability.

The foundation transmits the loads imposed on the structure to the

soil below it and therefore the type of soil used is very important.

Depending upon whether the soil is stable or loose and unstable

and the type and size of the structure, the foundation is designed as
either shallow or deep.

A stable foundation should bear the loads without sinking or settling

more than an inch at the most. Even this settlement should be
uniform under the entire building.

Construction Terminology

The foundation is known as the substructure (under the soil

structure) and the building itself is known as the superstructure
(above ground structure).

We can say that the main function of the foundation is to support

the load of the superstructure and transmit the load evenly to
the soil

Main Functions

To distribute the load of the structure over a larger area.

To transmit the load uniformly under the structure.

To provide a firm, level and strong base over which the

superstructure may be constructed.

To avoid any settlement or other movement that can cause damage

to any part of the building.

To increase the stability of the structure by preventing its tilting

or overturning against winds, earthquakes and uneven
distribution of live load. (Lateral Stability)

Load

Ground Level

450

Figure 1.1 Foundation

Forces pushing
down must equal
the forces pushing
up - EQUILIBRIUM

Heave
If the forces pushing up is
greater than the forces
pushing down the building will
be pushed upwards HEAVE

Subsid
e

If forces pushing down is

greater than the forces
pushing up the building will
sink SUBSIDENCE

Problems if the rules are

not followed

The load spreads at

about 400 through the
foundation

Loads Acting on the Foundation

The foundation has to bear more than just the load of the
superstructure.

A load can be defined as anything, which exerts pressure or

thrust on a structure.

The following are the different types of loads that act on the
building foundation:

Live Load (Qk) - A live load or imposed load is a movable,

temporary or transferable load. This can include moving vehicles,
people walking or children jumping.

Types of loads

Dead Load (Gk)- This load is permanent and immovable. It is

the non- transferable load of the structure itself.

Wind Load (Wk) - This load is applicable when the structure is

tall.

Snow Load - This load is considered when the structure is

situated in snowy, hilly areas.

Rock or soil

Typical bearing value

(kN/m2)

Massive igneous
bedrock
Sandstone
Shales and mudstone
Gravel, sand and gravel,
compact
Medium dense sand
Loose fine sand
Hard clay
Medium clay
Soft Clay

10,000
2,000 to 4,000
600 to 2,000
600
100 to 300
Less than 100
300 to 600
100 to 300
Less than 75

Typical allowable bearing values

Types of Soils
The following are the different types of
soils on which foundations are
constructed:
Soft soils - This soil is compressible and
yields when loaded. Examples are clayey
soil and loam. Small buildings or ordinary
structures can be built on these types of
soils.

 Spreading soils - These are non-cohesive

soils. Examples of this type of soil are sand
and gravel.
Hard or rocky soils - These are
incompressible and strong soils. They can
withstand heavy loads without yielding.
Multistoried buildings and water reservoirs
are designed on such soils.

Shallow Foundation

Types of
Foundation

Strip Footing
Pad Footing
Raft Foundation

Spun Pile
Deep Foundation

Micro Pile
Bakau Pile
Bore Pile

 The type of foundation used is selected

based on the type of the structure that
has to be built, the type of soil and the
type of material used.
They are classified into shallow and
deep foundations.

Shallow Foundations for low-rise construction

When the foundation is placed just below

the superstructure, it is known as shallow
foundation.
The purpose of these is to transmit the
loads of the superstructure over a wider
area.
These foundations are suitable for small
buildings.

A deep foundation is a type of foundation.

-distinguished from shallow foundations by the
depth they are embedded into the ground.
-the common reasons are because of large design
loads, a poor soil at shallow depth, or site
constraints (like property lines).
-deep foundations including piles, drilled shafts,
caissons, and piers. The naming conventions may
vary between engineering disciplines and firms.

-Deep foundations can be made out of timber,

steel, reinforced concrete and pre-tensioned
concrete.
-Deep foundations can be installed by either
driving them into the ground or drilling a shaft and
filling it with concrete, mass or reinforced

Spread/Strip Footings
Also known as footer or simply a footing.
An enlargement at the bottom of a column or
bearing wall that spreads the applied structural
loads over a sufficiently large soil area.
Typically, each column and each bearing wall
has its own spread footing.

Characteristic of Spread Footings

Low Cost
Ease of construction
For small-medium size structures with
moderate-good soil.
For large structures with exceptionally
good soil or shallow bedrock.

 Spread footing may be built in different

shapes and sizes to accommodate
individual needs.

Types of spread footings based on

size and shape
No

Types of Spread Footings

Applicable

Square

for a single centrally-located column

Rectangular

when large moment load are present

Circular

for light standards, flagpoles etc

Continuous

for bearing walls

(wall/strip footings)

Combined

when columns are close together

Ring

for walls of above-ground circular storage tanks

Strap (cantilever footing)

when very close to a property line/other structure

CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY ON PAD

FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING
PEGGING
EXCAVATION WORKS
PROVIDING A MATERIALS
REBAR
FORMWORK
CEMENT
SAND
AGGREGATE
FORMWORK
EXCAVATE A WORKING SPACES FOR BETTER
CONSTRUCTION

 REINFORCEMENT INSTALLATION
CONCRETING

MIXING
POURING
CURING
TESTING

Stepped Foundation (Spread Footings)

This type of foundation is one of the pad
foundation types.
When the structure is to be constructed on the
hill slopes, this type of foundation is used.
The foundation trenches are excavated in steps
and each step is filled with some concrete.
Each block of concrete is overlapped by the next
block, and so on.
Square footings usually support a single
centrally-located column.

Step no
greater than
450 mm
Overlap to be equal to or
greater than the depth of
the concrete foundation

Square Footings

Combined Footing Foundation

In this type, the two walls or columns of a
superstructure are provided with a single
combined footing.
This is designed so that the center of gravity of
the supporting area is in proportion to the center
of gravity of the tow column loads.
These can be rectangular or trapezoidal in
shape.

These are usefull

when columns are
located too close
together for each to
have its own
footing.

Rectangular Spread Footings

It have plan dimension of B x L, where L is
the longest dimension.
These are useful when obstructions
prevent construction of a square footing
with a sufficiently large base area and
when large moment loads are present.

Circular Spread Footings

This foundation are round in plan view.
These are more frequently used as
foundation for light standard, flagpoles,
and power transmission line.
If these foundation extend to a large
depth, they may be have more like a deep
foundation.

Continuous Spread Footings

This type of foundation is also known as
wall foundation or strip foundation.
It uses is to support bearing wall.

Ring Spread Footings

This footing are continuous footing that
been wrapped into a circle.
This type of footing is commonly used to
support the walls of above-ground circular
storage tanks.

Ring Spread Footing

Raft Foundation
Also known as Mat Foundation or Floating
Foundation.
Used where heavily constructed loads are
to be distributed over a large surface area.
It is used where the soil is marshy, clayey
or soft, with weak bearing capacity.

 This consists of reinforced concrete

slabs covering the entire area of
construction, like a floor.
Always made of reinforced concrete.

Consideration of using Raft

Foundation
The structural loads are so high.
The soil condition is so poor.
The bottom of structure is located below
groundwater table.
Raft foundation are more easier to
waterproof.

Conditions for Mat Foundations

-Structural loads require large area to spread
the load
-Soil is erratic and prone to differential
settlements
-Structural loads are erratic
-Unevenly distributed lateral loads
-Uplift loads are larger than spread footings can
accommodate; weight of the mat is a factor
here
-Mat foundations are easier to waterproof

Deep Foundation
In cases where the soil stratum is not
stable or strong, it is necessary to take
the foundation deeper to reach the
stable stratum.
For instance, in cases of river bridges,
it is important to reach soil stratum
below the scour depth of the rivers to
prevent settlement.

Deep Foundation

Spun pile
Micro pile
Bakau pile
Bore pile

Pile Foundation

Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and

transfer the load of the structure to the bearing ground located at
some depth below ground surface.
The main components of the foundation are the pile cap and the
piles.
Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load to
deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of
low bearing capacity
The main types of materials used for piles are wood, steel and
concrete. Piles made from these materials are driven, drilled or
jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps.
Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load transmitting
characteristic piles are classified accordingly.

Function of piles
As with other types of foundations, the purpose of a
pile foundations is:
to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground
to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load
A structure can be founded on piles if the soil
immediately beneath its base does not have
adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site
investigation show that the shallow soil is unstable
and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated
settlement is not acceptable a pile foundation may
become considered. Further, a cost estimate may
indicate that a pile foundation may be cheaper
than any other compared ground improvement
costs.

Function of piles
As with other types of foundations, the purpose of
a pile foundations is:
In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely
that the bearing capacity of the shallow soil will
not be satisfactory, and the construction should
be built on pile foundations. Piles can also be
used in normal ground conditions to resist
horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method
of foundation for works over water, such as
jetties or bridge piers.

Classification of pile with respect to load

transmission and functional behaviour
End bearing piles (point bearing piles)
Friction piles (cohesion piles )
Combination of friction and cohesion piles

End bearing piles

These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum
located at a considerable depth below the base of
the structure and they derive most of their carrying
capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil
at the toe of the pile.
The pile behaves as an ordinary column and
should be designed as such. Even in weak soil a
pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need only
be considered if part of the pile is unsupported, i.e.
if it is in either air or water. Load is transmitted to
the soil through friction or cohesion.

End bearing piles

But sometimes, the soil surrounding the pile may
adhere to the surface of the pile and causes
"Negative Skin Friction" on the pile. This,
sometimes have considerable effect on the
capacity of the pile. Negative skin friction is
caused by the drainage of the ground water and
consolidation of the soil. The founding depth of
the pile is influenced by the results of the site
investigate on and soil test.

End bearing piles

Friction piles
These piles also transfer their
load to the ground through skin
friction.
The process of driving such piles
does not compact the soil
appreciably.
These types of pile foundations
are commonly known as floating
pile foundations.

Spun Pile

Size : 250mm to 1000mm

Lengths : 6m, 9m and 12m (Typical)
Structural Capacity : 45Ton to 520Ton
Material : Grade 60MPa & 80MPa Concrete
Joints: Welded
Installation Method :
Drop Hammer
Jack-In

Spun Piles vs RC Square Piles

Spun Piles have
Better Bending Resistance
Higher Axial Capacity
Better Manufacturing Quality
Able to Sustain Higher Driving Stresses
Higher Tensile Capacity
Easier to Check Integrity of Pile
Similar cost as RC Square Piles

Bored Piles
Size : 450mm to 2m
Lengths : Varies
Structural Capacity : 80Ton to 2,300Tons
Concrete Grade : 20MPa to 30MPa
(Tremie)
Joints : None
Installation Method : Drill then Cast-In-Situ

Bored piles
Bored piles (Replacement piles) are generally considered to
be non-displacement piles a void is formed by boring or
excavation before piles is produced.
Piles can be produced by casting concrete in the void. Some
soils such as stiff clays are particularly amenable to the
formation of piles in this way, since the bore hole walls do not
requires temporary support except cloth to the ground surface.
In unstable ground, such as gravel the ground requires
temporary support from casing or bentonite slurry.
Alternatively the casing may be permanent, but driven into a
hole which is bored as casing is advanced. A different
technique, which is still essentially non-displacement, is to
intrude, a grout or a concrete from an auger which is rotated
into the granular soil, and hence produced a grouted column
of soil.

Borepile Cosiderations
Borepile Base Difficult to Clean
Bulging / Necking
Collapse of Sidewall
Dispute on Level of Weathered Rock

Micropiles
Size : 100mm to 350mm Diameter
Lengths : Varies
Structural Capacity : 20Ton to 250Ton
Material : Grade 25MPa to 35MPa Grout
N80 API Pipe as Reinforcement
Joints: None
Installation Method :
Drill then Cast-In-Situ
Percussion Then Cast-In-Situ

Protecting timber piles from decay:

a) by pre-cast concrete upper section above water level.
b) by extending pile cap below water level

Factors to be considered in selecting pile t

The required diameter
The required length
(limit: 18m)

The applied loads

Factors to be considered in
selecting a pile type
(timber, steel, concrete or composite)

The anticipated
driving conditions

The durability of pile

material in specific
environment

The local availability

of each pile type

Advantages & Disadvantages

bakau pile
No

Advantages

Disadvantages

Low construction cost

Medium axial loads (100 - 400 kN)

Used as waterfront structures

Susceptible to decay

For light driving conditions

Susceptible to damage when driving

(in loose sands and soft to medium clays)

 Damage during driving can be

controlled by:
Using lightweight hammers
Using steel bands near butt
Using a steel shoe on the toe
Pre-drilling

Advantages & Disadvantages

Spun ile
No
1

Advantages
Best suited for use as friction piles that

Disadvantages
Expensive to splice and cut

don't meet refusal during driving

(refusal: pile can't be driven any further, so
it becomes necessary to cut off the portion)
2

Best suited for toe-bearing piles where the

Difficult to cut

required length is uniform and predictable

3

Less expensive than steel piles

Succeptible to damage during

handling
or driving

Have a large load capacity

Not suited for hard driving conditions

Advantages & Disadvantages

Bore Pile
No

Advantages

Disadvantages

Less costs of mobilizing and demobilizing a drill rig

Dependent on contractor's skills

Less noise and vibration

Lower unit end bearing capacity

Soils excavated can be observed and classified

Expensive for full-scale load test

during drilling
4

Size of shafts can easily be changed during const.

Can penetrate soils with cobbles, boulders and

many types of bedrock

Possible to support each column with one large

shaft (no pile cap)

Drilled Equipments
Drilling Rigs
Truck-mounted drilling rig
For usual shaft, d=500 1200mm and H=6.24m

Specialized rigs
A-Shaped Frame Rigs

 Drilling Tools
The helix-shaped flight auger (most common
used)
Effective in most sols and soft rocks
Augers with hardened teeth and pilot stingers
Effective in hardpan or moderately hard
rock
Spiral-shaped rooting tools
Help loosen cobbles and boulders

 Bucket augers
To collect cuttings in a cylindrical bucket
Used in running sands
Belling buckets
To enlarge the bottom of the shaft (bells or

under reams)
Core barrels
To cut a circular slot,creating a removable
core
Used in hard rock
Multi-roller percussion bits
To cut through hard rock
Cleanout buckets
To remove final cuttings from hole

Drilled Techniques
Drilling in Firm Soils
Using dry method (open-hole method)
Most common used: simple, economy and
good reability

 Steps:
Holes usually advance using conventional
flight auger
Holes remain open without any special
support
Check the open hole for cleanliness and
alignment
Insert steel reinforcing cage
Pour the concrete

 Drilling in Caving (Cave-in) or Squeezing

Soils
Caving:
The side of a hole which is collapse before
or during concrete placement.
Usually in clean sands below the
groundwater table.

 Squeezing:
The sides of hole bulging inward during or after
drilling
Usually in soft clays and silts or highly organic
soils.

Most common techniques:

Using casing
Drilling fluid (slurry method) using bentonite clay or
attapulgite clay.

Pile Cap In the British Standard Code of Practice BS 8004, a

pile cap is defined as a concrete block cast on the head of a
pile, or a group of piles, to transmit the load from the structure
to the pile or group of piles.
Generally, pile cap transfers the load form the structures to a
pile / pile group, then the load further transfers to from soil
External pressures on a pile are likely to be greatest near the
ground surface. Ground stability increases with depth and
pressure. The top of the pile therefore, is more vulnerable to
movement and stress than the base of the pile. Pile caps are
thus incorporated in order to tie the pile heads together so that
individual pile movement and settlement is greatly reduced.
Thus stability of the pile group is greatly increased.

Foundations relying on driven piles often have

groups of piles connected by a pile cap (a large
concrete block into which the heads of the piles
are embedded) to distribute loads which are
larger than one pile can bear.
Pile caps and isolated piles are typically
connected with grade beams to tie the
foundation elements together; lighter structural
elements bear on the grade beams while heavier
elements bear directly on the pile cap.

Pile cap
Function:
To distribute the structural loads to the piles.
To tie the piles together so they can act as a
unit.
To laterally stabilise individual piles thus
increasing overall stability of the group
To provide the necessary combined
resistance to stresses set up by the
superstructure and/or ground movement

SUMMARY
Importance of Preliminary Study
Understanding the Site Geology
Carry out Proper Subsurface Investigation
that Suits the Terrain & Subsoil
Selection of Suitable Pile
Pile Design Concepts

SUMMARY
Importance of Piling Supervision
Typical Piling Problems Encountered
Present Some Case Histories