Interpreting Frequency Tables

Constructing Categories

Frequency tables include:

A reorganization of raw data.

A frequency count of observations
for each value in the data set or for
groups of observations (categories)
Usually the percentage of
observations in each category
The number of total observations in
the table.

Categories are determined by the researcher.

Methods for choosing categories can include:

Based on how previous researchers have

organized categories for this variable or
on existing theories.
By visually scanning computer print-out to
determine the range of values in the data
set and how they are grouped.
By putting an equal number of
observations in each category.
By using conventional rules of thumb to
organize categories (for example, under
18 or 65 and older)

Two important rules for choosing

categories are:

Categories must be mutually

exclusive (no overlap between them
respondents should not have
trouble choosing the right category)
Categories must be exhaustive (all
possible categories should be
chosen)

Are there problems with the

following categories:
How satisfied are you with the
services you have received?
1) Very satisfied
2) Satisfied
3) Neutral
4) Somewhat unsatisfied

What is your income?

Under $18,000
$20,000 to $30,000
$30,000 to $49,999
$50,000 or more

Rewrite of income table:

Under $18,000
$18,000 - $19,999
$20,000 - $29,999
$30,000 - $49,999
$50,000 or more

What is the most important problem

facing students today?

High tuition
Large classes
Finding jobs
No problems

(Rewrite of student problem

question)
What is the most important problem
facing students today?
1) High tuition
2) Large classes
3) Finding jobs
4) No problems
5) Other
______________________

Most tables contain percentages

Percentages represent the proportion of

responses within each category.
Percentages help us make comparisons
between categories. They are necessary
because raw data may not be distributed
equally among categories.
To calculate the percentage, you need to
know the number of observations in the
category and the total number of
observations in the data set.

The formula for percentages

Percentage = f /N * 100%
where f = the number of observations
in the category and N = the total
number of observations in the data
set.
N can also be described as the base,
total, or universe.

Examples
1) People in poverty in Fresno County =
400,000
Total number of people in Fresno County
= 1,000,000
Percentage = ????
2) Of 100 people in the study, 35 were
women? What percentage were women?

Example:
75 people completed a survey in New
Jersey. They were asked to name the
Boss of New Jersey. These were the
results:
15 - Tony Soprano
20 - the Governor of New Jersey
35 - Bruce Springsteen
5 - Other
What percentage of people responded in
each of the four categories?

Whos the Boss?

Boss of New Jersey

Percentage

Bruce Springsteen

46.67%

Governor of New Jersey

26.67%

Tony Soprano

20.0%

Other

6.67%

Total

100.00%

Questions about the Table and the

Study
Does the table actually add up to 100%?
Can you round off numbers? What are the rules for
rounding off?
Why do Montcalm and Royse argue that you should
also include the frequency count in each category
in the table?
Is this sample big enough so that the researchers
can actually state that almost half of the people in
New Jersey think Bruce Springsteen is the Boss?
To generalize the findings, do we need to know how
the sample was selected?

Decision Rules

Decimals over 5 should be rounded

up to the nearest number. For
example, 6.67 should be rounded to
6.7.
9.5 should be rounded to 10

You must tell SPSS if you want one or two

decimal places. SPSS automatically rounds the
numbers in the table so that they total 100%.
(Unless you change the specifications, SPSS
will use two decimal places in all tables and
statistical analyses.)

SPSS Tables include:

Values or categories.
Percentages
Valid Percent (Percentage in each
category minus any missing values in the
data set)
Cumulative Percent (Starting with the first
category, the percentage in each new
category is added on to the total. This can
be used in hand calculations to make sure
that your totals are correct. It also helps
if you are going to add categories
together)

SPSS Table

RS HIGHEST DEGREE

Valid

lt high school
high school
junior college
bachelor
graduate degree
Total

Frequency
189
947
132
386
193
1847

Percent
10.2
51.3
7.1
20.9
10.4
100.0

Valid Percent
10.2
51.3
7.1
20.9
10.4
100.0

Cumulative
Percent
10.2
61.5
68.7
89.6
100.0

Qualitative Data:

Requires that you collect data

without using categories.
To analyze this data you create
categories after the data is
collected.

To do this, you use methods similar to

those in quantitative research

Based on how previous researchers

have organized categories for this
variable or on existing theories.
By visually scanning your data
(usually transcriptions of interviews
or notes from your observations) to
determine how responses are
grouped.

Basically, in qualitative analysis,

the researcher:

Identifies common words, ideas,

patterns and themes.
Uses sample quotations to illustrate
what typical respondents say.
Counts the number of times a
specific word or idea is mentioned.
Consequently, some qualitative
analysis includes frequency counts
and can be presented in tables.

For example, in one study people were asked to identify

common problems at welfare offices. Comments were grouped
by the researcher into four categories:

Long waits for service (10

responses)
Rude caseworkers (8 respondents)
Dirty waiting rooms (7 respondents)
Limited information about
application processes or rules (5
respondents)

Fifteen people participated in this

study. Do the results suggest that
people made more than one
comment about the welfare office?

It is necessary in qualitative
analysis to:

Choose what will be your unit of

measurement: words, phrases,
sentences, or the entire set of comments
a respondent made to one or a set of
questions
Calculate the base (total) of all words,
phrases, etc to be included in your total
tally of responses. You do this to
determine whether you have included all
words or phrases etc. in your tally.
Sometimes researchers will also calculate
the percentage of time a response occurs.

Steps in Qualitative Analysis

Bring together all responses.

Organize them so that you can
visually scan common elements.
Put the common elements into
categories. (first level analysis)
Identify whether there are common
themes and patterns among the
different elements of the study
(second level of analysis)

For example.
Question 1: How can services better meet your
needs?
Responses
better transportation
change hours of service
provide day care
Question 2:
What problems do you have coming to the agency?
Transportation is hard to find
Dont like staff members
Im embarrassed because I cant pay for services.

How to tell if you have qualitative

data:
No categories for responses.
Data collected through content
analysis, observation, or interviews
( In some cases quantitative
surveys may contain open-ended/no
category responses. These
questions are qualitative)
No intervention has been introduced.

For example, one type of interview

involves a focus group.
Focus groups include 6 to 8 people plus a
facilitator and a note taker.
Focus group interviews are usually taped.
The facilitator asks 6 to 8 open-ended
questions. Group members volunteer
responses. One response may build on
another. Results usually generate a
consensus about what the group
perceives or feels about an issue.
Focus groups are often used in politics or
marketing. They can be used to see how
people view services or policies.

Example of Focus Group

Questions:
1.

Can you describe how you first became aware of your

deafness?

2. How do you see yourself today, in terms of your deafness?

3. What does your deafness mean to you?
4. Can you describe any particularly difficult or traumatic
experiences in your life related to your deafness?
5. Can you describe how you fit into deaf culture?
From Janesick, V. (1998). "Stretching" exercises for qualitative
researchers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, p. 75.

Remember that questions in qualitative

research ask:

How questions
Why questions

Do not use questions that people can

answer yes or no!!!