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N
O
I
T
C
U
INTROD
BY:

O
ENGR. DENNIS P. MANEJER

SUB TOPICS:

A. THE MEANING OF STATISTICS

B. NATURE OF STATISTICS
C. SAMPLE AND POPULATION
D. ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS
E. SUMMATION

THE MEANING OF STATISTICS

THE MEANING OF STATISTICS

Statistics refers to a set of pertinent

activities such as__________,
collection _____________,
presentation
analysis and interpretation
________,
_____________ of quantitative
data.
It is a field of study which deals
with mathematical characterization of a
group or groups of items.

THE MEANING OF STATISTICS

Processes:

1st Collection of Data

refers to the process of gathering numerical
information.
Methods of gathering information:
1. Interview
2. Questionnaire
3. Experiments
4. Observations
5. Documentary Analysis

THE MEANING OF STATISTICS

2nd Presentation of Data

arranging the data in tables and graphs.
Such tables refer to frequency distribution
which may either be onedimensional or two
dimensional.
Graphical presentation includes bar graphs,
frequency polygon, pie graph, and many
others.

THE MEANING OF STATISTICS

3rd Analysis of Data

refers to the activity of describing the
properties or behaviour of the data or the
possible correlation of different quantities or
variables.
Such description can be obtained after
summarizing the data into measurements
like the averages.

THE MEANING OF STATISTICS

4th Interpretation
has to be made based on the preliminary
activities and other statistical methods.
Such methods involve testing the significance of
the results.

NATURE OF STATISTICS

NATURE OF STATISTICS

Classification:
1.
2.

Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics

NATURE OF STATISTICS

Descriptive Statistics

refers to the field of statistics that includes the

methods of collecting, classifying, graphing, and
averaging data with the objective of simply
describing the properties or characteristics of the
data on hand.
Thus, the task of the statistician in this area is simply
to select a few procedures, do some averaging, and
eventually be able to identify significant features of
the given data.

NATURE OF STATISTICS

Inferential Statistics

Demand a somewhat higher degree of critical

judgment and advance mathematical models.
This field is concerned with drawing conclusions or
generalizations from organized data.
Thus, the task of the statistician here is not just to
devise ways to give a summary description of the
data but ways to test the significance of the results.

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

Population refers to the totality of all objects

under study.
Sample small part that serves as the
representative of the population.

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

If the population is too large to handle, then,

taking samples is a very good alternative. Through
sampling, resources can be saved including time
and effort. It should be noted however, that in
sampling only a small percentage of the population
is considered, then sampling error should be
expected.
Different sampling techniques include random
sampling, biased sampling, cluster sampling, etc.

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

e.g. (Random Sampling)

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

e.g. (Biased Sampling)
Telephone sampling is common in marketing surveys. A simple
random sample may be chosen from the sampling frame consisting
of a list of telephone numbers of people in the area being surveyed.
This method does involve taking a simple random sample, but it is
not a simple random sample of the target population (consumers in
the area being surveyed.) It will miss people who do not have a
phone. It may also miss people who only have a cell phone that has
an area code not in the region being surveyed. It will also miss
people who do not wish to be surveyed, including those who
monitor calls on an answering machine and don't answer those
from telephone surveyors. Thus the method systematically excludes
certain types of consumers in the area.

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

e.g. (Cluster Sampling)

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

A simple problem that is usually encountered by the researcher
is the determination of the sample size. To compute for the value of
the sample size n relative to the population size N, we have the
formula,

where

N is the population size

e is the margin of error
n is the sample size

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

Example 1.
Find the sample size if the population size is
250 at 95% accuracy.

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

Solution:

n = 153.85
n = 154

Answer

Therefore at 95% accuracy, we can take a sample of

154 members from a population of 250.

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

Example 2.
A researcher is conducting an investigation
regarding the factors affecting the efficiency of
the 185 faculty members of a certain college. If
he wanted to have a margin of error of 5%, then
how many of the faculty members should be
taken as respondents?

SAMPLE AND POPULATION

Solution:

The population size shall be represented by the entire

faculty force of the college. Hence, N = 185. At 5% margin of
error, the sample size n shall be

n = 126.50
n = 126

Answer

ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

To round off a number to a desired approximate value, we shall
consider the following rules:

1. If the first number of the portion to be dropped is

less than 5, change all the digits that are to the
right of the last retained digit to zero.
e.g. Round off 220.5348 to two decimal places.
Answer: 220.53

ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

2. If the first number of the portion to be dropped is

greater than 5, then simply add one (1) to the last
retained digit.
e.g. Round off 143.7679 to the nearest ones digit.
Answer: 144

ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

3. If the first number to be dropped is exactly equal

to 5, then
a. add 1 to the last retained digit if it is odd.
e.g. Round off 158.7975 to three decimal places.
Answer: 158.798

b. the last retained digit is unchanged if it is even.

e.g. Round off 325.156 to the nearest tens digit.
Answer: 320

ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

Exercises: Round of the following numbers to the indicated decimal
place value.
1. 987.3567 to two decimal places
Answer: 987.36
2. 458.785 to two decimal places
Answer: 458.78
3. 1453.4639 to the nearest hundreds digit
Answer: 1400

SUMMATION

SUMMATION

Summation Method of presenting the sum

of a series of numbers. It can be
represented by using the sigma notation
or the Greek letter sigma .

SUMMATION
The sum of n observations represented by x1, x2, x3,, xn is
usually written as x1 + x2 + x3 + + xn
Or in sigma notation, the sum shall be written as

The left side of EQN 1.2 I read as the sum of all x for i = 1 to n.
To illustrate, the sum of four observations represented by x1, x2, x3,
and x4 shall be written as

SUMMATION

A few simple rules involving summation must be understood for the next chapters.
Among these rules, the following are the most commonly used.
RULE 1.
constants.

If c is a constant, then n c constants is equal to c times the number of

In symbols, we have

Example 1.
Using the right hand side of EQN 1.3, we have

SUMMATION
RULE 2.

If c is a constant multiplied by each of the n observations represented by xi, then

the sum of the products is equal to c times the sum of n observations. In
symbols, we have

SUMMATION
Example 2.

Solution:

Using EQN 1.4, we have

SUMMATION
Example 3.

Consider the following observations.

x1 = 12; x2 = 7; x3 = 10; x4 = 13; x5 = 8
Determine the value of the following expression.

SUMMATION
Solution:

b. Using EQN 1.4, we have

SUMMATION
RULE 3.

If xi and yi, are two random quantities, then

SUMMATION
Example 4.

Consider the following quantities.

x1 = 3; x2 =5; x3 = 7; x4 = 6
y1 = 5; y2 =8; y3 = 8; y4 = 9

SUMMATION

Solution:

SUMMATION
Example 5.

Consider the following paired observations represented by the variables x

and y.
x: 3, 2, 8, 6, 2, 0
y: 5, 0, 8, 3, 2, 5
Evaluate the following expressions:
1.

4.

2.

5.

3.

6.

SUMMATION
Solution:

x: 3, 2, 8, 6, 2, 0
y: 5, 0, 8, 3, 2, 5

1.

3+2+8+6+2+0

21

2.

5+0+8+3+2+5

23

3.
4. (
5.
6.

=
=

3 2 + 2 2 + 8 2 + 6 2 + 2 2 + 02

9 + 4 + 64 + 36 + 4 + 0

(3 + 2 + 8 + 6 + 2 + 0)2

212

117

441

= 3(5) + 2(0) + 8(8) + 6(3) + 2(2) + 0(5) = 15 + 0 + 64 + 18+ 4 + 0 = 101

=

(21)(23)

483

THE END

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