Structure and Function of Genetic

Material
DNA & RNA
DNA=deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA=ribonucleic acid
Basic building blocks:
Nucleotides
Phosphate group
Pentose sugar
Nitrogenous base

Nucleic Acids

From the Virtual Microbiology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com

Image: Nucleotide Structure, Wikipedia

Nitrogen Bases in DNA

Adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine

The bases ALWAYS pairs as follows:
Adenine-Thymine
Guanine-Cytosine
Base pairs are held together by hydrogen
bonds

Structure of DNA
Double stranded (double
helix)
Chains of nucleotides
5 to 3 (strands are antiparallel)
Complimentary base pairing
A-T
G-C

Phosphate-P
Sugar-blue
Bases-ATGC

Direction of replication

DNA replication proceeds 5 3

A free 3 end is needed to add another
nucleotide

Key Terminology
1. REPLICATION

new copy of DNA

being made
2. TRANSCRIPTION gene copied from
DNA sequence into messenger RNA
3. TRANSLATION mRNA read and
protein produced

DNA Replication-occurs at the

replication fork
5 to 3
DNA helicase-unzips + parental DNA strand that
is used as a template
Leading stand (5 to 3-continuous)
*DNA polymerase-joins growing DNA strand after
nucleotides are aligned (complimentary)
Lagging strand (5 to 3-not continuous)
*RNA polymerase (makes short RNA primer)
*DNA polymerase (extends RNA primer then digests RNA
primer and replaces it with DNA)
*DNA ligase (seals Okazaki fragments-the newly formed DNA
fragments)

Replication Fork

Transcription
1. This is the process of making a copy of a gene
(sequence of DNA that codes for a protein or
functional product)
2. The enzyme responsible for this process is
RNA POLYMERASE
3. Copies the gene is a 5 3 direction
4. Gene transcription begins at a site called the
PROMOTER and ends at another site called the
TERMINATOR

Transcription
One strand of DNA used as a template to make a
complimentary strand of mRNA
Promoter/RNA polymerase/termination site/5 to 3
Ways in which RNA & DNA differ:
RNA is ss
RNA sugar is ribose
Base pairing-A-U

Transcription

Types of RNA
Three types:
mRNA: messenger RNA
Contains 3 bases ( codon)

rRNA: ribosomal RNA

Comprises the 70 S ribosome

tRNA: transfer RNA

Transfers amino acids to ribosomes for protein synthesis
Contains the anticodon (3 base sequence that is
complimentary to codon on mRNA)

Translation
Three parts:
Initiation-start codon (AUG)
Elongation-ribosome moves along mRNA
Termination: stop codon
reached/polypeptide released and new
protein forms

Transcription

(s

Genetic code

Genetic Transfer in Bacteria

Genetic transfer-results in genetic variation
Genetic variation-needed for evolution
Three ways:
Transformation: genes transferred from one
bacterium to another as naked DNA
Conjugation: plasmids transferred 1 bacteria to
another via a pilus
Transduction: DNA transferred from 1 bacteria to
another by a virus

Transformation

Conjugation

Cell to cell contact required

Plasmid exchange through the sex pilus
Plasmid is called the F factor

Conjugation

Hfr cell

Hfr x F- cell

Transduction

Mutations
Change in the base sequence of DNA
May or may not have an effect on the organism
The potential magnitude of the change depends
on the gene affected

BASE SUBSTITUTION
TACTTCAAACCGATT

AUGAAGUUUGGCUAA

TACTTCAAATCGATT

AUGAAGUUUAGCUAA

Met-lys-phe-ser-stop

Met-lys-phe-gly-stop

MISSENSE MUTATION

Normal DNA/Missense Mutation

BASE DELETION
TACTTCAAACCGATT

TACTTCAACCGATT

AUGAAGUUUGGCUAA

AUGAAGUUGGCUAA
.

Met-lys-phe-gly-stop

Met-lys-leu-ala.
FRAMESHIFT
MUTATION

Nonsense Mutation/Frameshift
Mutation

Mutations
Changes in base sequence of DNA/lethal and
inheritable
Can be:
Harmful
Lethal
Helpful
Silent

What causes mutation

Spontaneous
Increases caused by environmental factors
UV light
X-rays
Benzene, formaldehyde, carbon tetrachloride

Gametic and somatic mutations

Gametic testis of males, ovaries of females,
inherited
Somatic in normal body cells occurring beyond
zygote formation, not inherited but may effect the
person during their lifetime.

Mutagens and their effects

Ionising radiation Nuc
radiation, xrays,
gamma rays (e.g.
medical treatment)
associated with
development of
cancers (e.g.
leukaemia, thyroid
cancer and skin cancer

Mutagens and their effects

Viruses and
microorganisms
integrate into human
chromosome, upset
genes and can
trigger cancer

Mutagens and their effects

Environmental
poisons
Organic
solvents such
as
formaldehyde,
tobacco, coal
tars, benzene,
asbestos, some
dyes

Mutagens and their effects

Alcohol and diet
High alcohol intake
increase the risk of
some cancers. Diet
high in fat and those
containing burned or
highly preserved
meat

The effect of muations

Not all are harmful
Survival advantage
Most common among bacteria and viruses
but also seen in insects
If no selective pressure may remain in
population

Harmful mutations
Cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anaemia
Disfunctional proteins
Albinism caused by mutation in gene of enzyme
pathway of melanin

Beneficial mutations
Bacteria antibiotic
resistance through
mutation, transfer
between bacterial
species
Superbugs such as
MRSA have arisen this
way
RNA viruses such as
HIV mutates its protein
coat so that the host

 Infectious diseases are the leading cause of

death worldwide.
CAPSULE
The most notorious species of bacteria that
produce capsules are Streptococcus pneumoniae
(pneumococcus), Neisseria meningitidis
(meningococcus), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Cell Wall
Toxins
Adhesins
Invasions
Intracellular life style

EVOLUTION OF BACTERIAL
PATHOGENS
horizontal gene transfer plays a principal part in
the molecular evolution of novel bacterial
pathogens.
the incorporation of genetic elements transferred
from a donor organism directly into the genome of
the recipient organism
they form genomic islandsthat is, blocks of
DNA which contain mobile genetic elements.

 Pathogenicity islands consist of large regions of

genomic DNA -present in pathogenic bacterial
strains but absent from the genomes of nonpathogenic members of the same or related
species
all three mechanisms for genetic exchange or
transfer between bacteria (that is, transformation,
transduction, and conjugation) appear to be
important for the evolution of pathogenic species

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
The discovery of antibiotics over 50 years ago revolutionised
medical treatment of infectious bacterial diseases
the widespread use of antibiotics over the past several decades
has led to the emergence of antibiotic resistant strains of many
bacteria, and represents a serious global threat to modern
medical practice
Antibiotic resistant bacterial strains (many of which have acquired
multidrug resistance) that have recently emerged and are a cause
for significant concern include: diarrhoeal pathogens such as
Shigella, Salmonella, E coli, and Enterococcus faecium;
respiratory pathogens like Klebsiella pneumoniae and P
aeruginosa; urinary tract pathogens like E coli, and M tuberculosis

 There are three common types of antimicrobial

resistance mechanisms in bacteria: those that
modify the target site, those that alter uptake of
the antibiotic, and those that inactivate the
antibiotic.
The acquisition of antibiotic resistance occurs by
two genetic processes: by spontaneous mutations
and mainly by the acquisition of genes from
exogenous sources via horizontal transfer