ANALOG ANALYSIS in

SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE

To analyze an electric circuit or analog model we use

differential equations which even for the simplest of the
cases is tedious.

Two approaches are used to simplify the analysis of

systems. The approaches circumvent the need to solve
differential equations.
The Laplace Transform is the most general, and is the
most frequently used simplification technique. It applies to
systems exposed to a one-time, or transient stimulus signal
or similar change in operating conditions.
Phasor analysis described here only applies to systems
exposed to sinusoidal stimulation.

VARIABLES AND ELEMENTS

An analog model consists of elements arranged in a

specific configuration.

These elements essentially define the relationship

between two variables: a variable associated with
potential energy and one related to kinetic energy or
movement/flow.

In mechanical systems, the potential energy variable

is force and the movement/flow variable is velocity.

In electrical systems, the potential energy variable

is voltage and the flow variable is current.

Force and Velocity

Velocity is the time derivative of position

dx

dt

In mechanical systems, energy is work:

E Work Fdx Fx joules (if F constant over x)

F is in Newtons and x is in meters

Differentiating both sides shows that Force is related to

potential energy:

dE
F
dx

Current and Voltage

Current is the time derivative of charge:

dq
i
dt

In electrical systems, voltage is related to potential

energy. Specifically, voltage is the potential energy with
respect to a given charge:

v dE

joules
volts
dq coul

where E is the electric field strength and q is charge.

Power

In Mechanical systems, power is the product of

the flow and potential variables:

P dE dt F dxdt = Fv watts

In electrical systems, power is also the product of

the flow and potential variables:
dE vdq
P dE

and from the definition of P above

dq

dt v
dt Vi watts

Electrical Variables

The two variables found in electric analog models, also

known as electric circuits or networks, are voltage and
current. In circuit analysis, voltage is always a relative
variable: it is the difference between the voltage of two
points. For example, vab means the voltage at point a
with respect to point b:

vab = va - vb

It is also common to say that there is a voltage drop from

point b to point a, or a voltage rise from a to b. By this
convention, it is logical that vab should be the negative of
vba:

vab = -vba

Voltage and Current Directions

Both voltage and current have directions as indicted by

a plus sign for voltage (occasionally both plus and
minus signs for redundant clarity) and an arrow for
current.

Vb

i
Element

Va

Current and voltage directions are only references

and do not necessarily indicate the actual direction of
current.

Voltage and Current Directions

For voltage, the + sign only indicates the point that is

assumed to have a more positive value. In fact, it could
be that the real voltage polarity is the opposite to what
was originally assumed or assigned.

When this occurs, we do not change our original polarity

assignment. We merely state that vba has a negative
value. So a negative voltage does not mean negative
potential energy, just that the actual polarity is the
reversed of that originally assigned.

The same is true of the current direction: if current

actually is flowing in the opposite direction to that
assigned by the arrow, the current will be given a
negative value.

Grounds

By convention (but
with some
justification as shown
later) the voltage of
the earth is at 0.0
volts, so voltages are
often measured with
respect to the voltage
of the earth, or some
common point
referred to as
ground. A common
ground point is
indicated by either of
the two symbols
shown.
When only one, or no, subscript is associated with a voltage, v,
it is understood that this is the voltage at the indicated point
with respect to ground or a common ground point.

Electrical Elements

The elements as described here are idealizations: true

elements only approximate the characteristics described.
However, actual electrical elements come quite close to
these idealizations, at least for all practical purposes.

Electrical elements are divided into two categories based

on their energy generation characteristics: active
elements supply or can supply energy to a circuit, while
passive elements do not.

Passive elements are further divided into two categories:

those that use up or dissipate energy and those that
store energy.

Resistor Power

The power that is dissipated by a resistor can be

determined from the basic equation for power:

P vi v v

2
v

R watts
P vi iRi i 2 R watts

or

The voltage-current relationship can also be stated

in terms of the current as a function of voltage:

1
i v Gv
R

The inverse of resistance, R, is termed the conductance, G,

and has the units of mhos (ohms spelled backwards) and is
symbolized by the upside down omega.

Resistors: Defining Equation

The only element that is passive and dissipates energy is the
resistor. The resistor removes energy from the circuit in the form
of heat.
The basic equation that describes the two-variable, voltagecurrent relationship for a resistor is the classic Ohms law:

vR = R iR volts
where R is the resistance in volts/amp, better known as ohms (),
i is the current in amps, and v is the voltage in volts. The
resistance value of a resistor is a consequence of some natural
property of the material from which it is made, known as resistivity,
.
where is the resistivity of the resistor
l
R
material, l is the length of the material, and
A
A is the area of the material.

Resistors: Symbol
The two
symbols on the
right indicate a
variable resistor.
The symbol for a resistor is a
jagged line as shown.
The current always flows into
the positive side of the
resistor.
A variable resistor is made by
changing the effective length of
some resistive material. Such a
device is termed a
potentiometer or pot for short.

Example 4-1 Determine the resistance of a 100 ft of

#14 AWG copper wire.
Solution: A wire of size #14 AWG (American Wire
Gauge or B. & S. gauge ~ Appendix D) has a diameter
of 0.064. The value of for copper is 1.70 x 10-8.
Convert all units to the cgs.

12in 2.54cm
l 100 ft
3048b cm

in
1 ft

A r 2

d 2
.
01626
2

20.72 x10 3cm2

2
2

3048
l
8
3
R 17
. x10

2
.
48
x
10

3
A
20.9 x10

Electrical Elements: Inductors

Energy storage devices are sometimes divided into two

classes: inertial elements and capacitive elements.
The corresponding electrical elements are the inductor
and capacitor, respectively, and the voltage-current
equations for these elements involve differential or
integral equations.
Current flowing into an inductor carries energy that is
stored in a magnetic field. It is this relationship between
current flow and energy stored that gives the inductor its
inertial-like behavior: it appears as if the energy is stored
as kinetic energy associated with the mass of moving
electrons that is being stored (although, in fact, the
energy is stored in an electromagnetic field).

Inductors: Defining Equation

The voltage across the inductor is the result of a self-induced

electromotive force which opposes that voltage and is
proportional to the time derivative of the current:

vL L diL dt
where L is the constant of proportionality termed the
inductance measured in henrys, or h (actually, Weber-turns
per amp, or volts per amp/sec).
Physically, an inductor is simply a coil of wire that
utilizes mutual flux coupling (i.e. mutual inductance)
between the wire coils.

Inductor Power

The energy stored can be determined from the equation

for power and the voltage-current relationship of the
inductor:

Inductors: Symbol
Inductors follow the same polarity rules as resistors:
current flows into the positive side.
This figure shows the symbol for an inductor, a
schematic representation of a coil, with the
appropriate current-voltage directions.

Inductor Properties

If the current through an inductor is not

changing, then there will be no energy stored in
the inductor and the voltage across the inductor
will be zero, regardless of the amount of steady
current flowing through the inductor.

The condition when voltage across an element

is zero for any current is known as a short
circuit. Hence an inductor appears as a short
circuit to a constant current.

A constant current is called dc or direct

current.

Inductors: Current Continuity

The v-i relationship of an inductor can also be expressed in terms
of current. Solving the defining equation for i:

1
iL vLdt
L
The integral of any function is continuous, even if that function
contains a discontinuity (as long as that discontinuity is finite).
Since the current through an inductor is the integral of the voltage
across the inductor, the current will be continuous because any
voltage discontinuities that might occur will be finite. The current
through an inductor can change slowly or rapidly (depending on the
current), but it can never change in a step-like (i.e., discontinuous)
manner. In mathematical terms, for an inductor:

iL(t-) = iL(t+)

Electrical Elements: Capacitors

A capacitor

also stores energy, in this case

in an electromagnetic field created by
oppositely charged plates. (Capacitors are
nicknamed caps and engineers frequently use that
term. Curiously, no such nicknames exist for resistors or
inductors, although in some applications inductors are
called chokes. )

For

a capacitor, the energy stored is

proportional to the charge on the capacitor
and charge is related to the time integral
of current flowing through the capacitor.

Capacitors: Defining Equation

The defining equation for a capacitor is:

1
vC iCdt
C
or, solving for i:
iC C dvC dt
where C, the capacitance, is the constant of
proportionality and is given in units of farads (f) which
are coulombs/volt.
The inverse relationship between the voltage-current
equations of inductors and capacitors is an example of
duality, a property that occurs often in electric circuits.

Capacitor Power
The energy stored in a capacitor can be determined from
the basic equations:

v C

1
and the energy is: dE vdq qdq
C

For a capacitor holding a specific charge, Q.

Q

1
1 Q2
E dE qdq
C0
2 C
Q
Substituting V= C joules
1
2
E CV joules
2

Capacitors: Symbol

The symbol for a capacitor is two parallel lines. Capacitors

follow the same polarity rules as other passive elements: current
flows into the positive side.

iC

vC

Most capacitors are constructed from two approximately parallel

plates which are formed into a circular shape to make a tubular
structure. The charge is held on the opposing plates. The
capacitance for such a parallel plate capacitor is given as:

A
C v
d
q

where A is the area of the plates, d is the distance separating the

plates, and is a property of the material separating the plates
termed the dielectric constant. More often it is called dielectric
permittivity = 1/36 x10 -9 f /m or ~ 8.85x 10 -12 f /m

Capacitor Properties

The capacitance describes the ability of a capacitor to store (or

release) charge with respect to changes in voltage, specifically:

C v farads

where q is charge in coulombs and v is volts.

A large capacitor can take on or release a fair amount of charge, q,
with little change in voltage, while a small capacitor shows a larger
change in voltage for a given change in charge.
The largest capacitor readily available to us, the earth, is considered
to be an infinite capacitor: its voltage remains constant no matter
how much current flows into or out of it.
This is why the earth is a popular ground point or reference voltage:
it is always at the same voltage

Example 4-2 Calculate the dimensions of a 1-farad

capacitor. Assume a plate separation of 1.0 mm. with air
between the plates.
Solution Use the parallel plate equation and the dielectric
constant for a vacuum. The dielectric constant for a
vacuum is 0 = 8.85 x 10-12 f /m and is also used for air.

This is an area of about 6.5 miles on a side! This large

size is related to the units of farads which are very large
for practical capacitors. Typical capacitors are in the
microfarads (10-6) or even picofarads (10-12), giving rise
to considerably smaller plate sizes.

Capacitors: Voltage Continuity

Since the voltage across a capacitor is the integral of the

capacitor current, capacitor voltage will be continuous
based on the same arguments used for inductor current.
Thus, for a capacitor:

vC(t-) = vC(t+)

It is possible to change the voltage across a capacitor

either slowly or rapidly depending on the current, but
never instantaneously. The fact that the behavior of
voltage across a capacitor is similar to the behavior of
current through an inductor is another example of duality.

Current and Voltage Directions

This approach to voltage polarity and current

direction may seem confusing, but it is actually
quite liberating.

It means that we can make our polarity and

direction assignments without worrying about the
voltage polarity or current direction that actually
exists in a given circuit.

We can make these assignments more or less

arbitrarily (there are some rules that must be
followed as described below) and allow the
positive or negative values to indicate actual
direction or polarity

Practical Electrical Elements

The equations for passive electrical elements are

idealizations of the actual elements.
In fact, the elements do have fairly linear voltage-current
characteristics; for example, a real resistor will follow
Ohms law quite closely.
However, all real electric elements will contain some
resistance, inductance, and capacitance, and these
undesired characteristics are termed parasitic
elements.

Practical Electrical Elements (continued)

A real resistor will have some inductor- and capacitor-like
characteristics, although these will generally be small and can be
ignored except at very high frequencies.
.

Similarly, real capacitors also closely

approximate ideal capacitors except for
some parasitic resistance. This resistance
appears as a large resistance in parallel
with the capacitor, leading to a small
leakage current through the capacitor

Rp

Inductors are constructed by winding wire, often of significant length,

into coil configuration. Since all wire contains some resistance,
inductors generally include a fair amount of series resistance. This
resistance can be reduced by using wire having a larger diameter,
but this results in increased physical size.

Active Elements
Active elements can supply energy to a system and in
the electrical domain come in two flavors: voltage
sources and currents sources.
Voltage sources supply a specific voltage which may be
constant or time varying, but is always defined by the
element.
Current sources supply a specific current which is also
completely defined by the source.
In an ideal voltage source, the voltage is independent
of the current through the source: a voltage source is
concerned only about maintaining its specified voltage,
it does not care about what current is going though it.

Voltage Sources
The voltage polarity is part of the voltage
definition and must be given with the symbol for a
voltage source as shown.
The current through the source can be in either
direction (again, the source does not care).
If the current is flowing into the positive end of
the source, the source is being charged and it is
actually removing energy from the circuit. If
current flows out of the positive side, then the
source is supplying energy.
The equation for a voltage source would be:
simply:
v = VSource.
The energy supplied or taken up by the source:
P = vi.

+
Vs

Current Sources
An ideal current source supplies a specified
current which again could be fixed or time-varying.
It cares only about the current running though it,
not the voltage across it. (Since current is usually
an effect of voltage, the voltage will be whatever it
has to be to produce the specified current.)
The symbol used to represent a current source is
shown.
Current direction is given as part of the current
specification.
Since a current source does not care about, or
specify, the voltage across it, it does not specify
voltage polarity.

Is

v( t) L di dt
1
v( t) idt
C
+
Vs

Is

PHASOR ANALYSIS

If a system and its signals or variables are responding in

a sinusoidal manner (or can be converted to sinusoids
using the Fourier transform) then a technique known as
phasor analysis can be used to analyze these systems.

Phasor analysis is confined to systems whose variables

or signals vary sinusoidally, have always been varying
sinusoidally, and always will be varying sinusoidally (for
all practical purposes). These eternally sinusoidal
situations are referred to as sinusoidal steady-state
conditions.

In this phrase, the term steady-state is used in a more

general sense: it does not mean static since there is
sinusoidal variation; rather, that the sinusoidal variation
is unchanging.

PHASOR ANALYSIS (continued)

Under sinusoidal steady-state conditions, all system variables can

be described by the same general question:
x(t) = A cos(t + ) = A cos(2ft + )
where the value of A and will vary, but the value of (or f) will
always be the same.

If the system is linear, then all variables/signals will have the same
frequency, (or series of harmonically related frequencies if some
other periodic variation is decomposed using the Fourier transform).

This is because linear processes, which can be completely defined

by equations with integrals, differentials, or scaling do not alter the
frequency of a sinusoid. Integration, differentiation, or scaling can
change the amplitude and/or phase of a sinusoid, but the result will
still be a sinusoid of the same frequency.

This means that any analysis need only be concerned with the
values of two variables: amplitude and phase.

Complex Representation of Sinusoids

Complex arithmetic may be of use in simplifying the mathematics

of sinusoids, since a single complex variable is actually two
variables rolled into one (a + jb). Returning again to the complex
representation of sinusoids given up by Eulers equation:

ejx cos x j sin x

or, in terms of the general equation for a sinusoid:

Aej (t ) Acos(t ) jAsin(t )

Comparing these equations shows that a general sinusoid can be

represented by the real part of a complex variable:

A cos(t ) Re Aej (t ) Re Aejejt

Complex Representation of Sinusoids

If all variables in an equation contain the real part of the complex

sinusoid, the real operators can be eliminated, since: if

Re Aej 1ejt Re Bej 2 ejt for all t

then
Aej 1ejt Bej 2ejt
Similarly, since all variables will be at the same frequency, , the
ejt term will appear in each variable and will cancel (once the Re
operators are eliminated). Therefore, the general sinusoid can
be represented in a linear system by a single complex number:

A cos(t ) Aej A
where Aej is termed the phasor representation of a sinusoid.

Phasor Calculus

To determine the derivative of the phasor

representation of a sinusoid, we return to the original
complex definition of a sinusoid (i.e., Re Aejejt):

d(Re Aejejt)
Re jAejejt
dt
The derivative of a phasor is the same as the original,
but multiplied by j. Hence, in phasor representation,
taking the derivative is accomplished by multiplying
the original term by j, and a calculus operation has
be reduced to a simple arithmetic operation:

dt

Phasor Calculus
Similarly, integration can be performed in the phasor
domain simply by dividing by j:
jejt
Ae
Re Aejejtdt Re j

and the operation of integration also becomes an

arithmetic operation when sinusoids are represented
by phasors:

1
dt

Phasor Properties
Note that 1/j is the same as -j:
1

1
1
1

1 j
1 1 1 ( 1)

So that the integration operation can also be written

as:
dt j /
Multiplying by j in complex arithmetic is the same as
shifting the phase by 90 degrees which follows directly
from Eulers equation:

jex j (cos x j sin x) j cos x sin x sin x j cos x

x 90
jex cos( x 90) j sin( x 90) ee

Phasor Properties

(continued)

Similarly, dividing by j is the equivalent of shifting the

phase by - 90 deg.

ex (cos x j sin x) cos x

sin x j cos x sin x

j
j
j
ex
x 90
sin x j cos x cos( x 90) sin( x 90) ee
j

Example 4-3 Find the derivative of x(t) = 10 cos (2t + 20) using
phasor analysis.
Solution: Convert x(t) to phasor representation (represented as x(j)
or just x(), multiply by j to effectively differentiate, then take the
inverse phasor transform:

[This comes from the fact that cos (x) = sin (x+90) = -sin (x-90)]
A shorthand notation is common for the phasor description of a
sinusoid. Rather than write ej, we simply write: _ . In this
notation, the phasor representation of -20 sin(2t + 20) in the
example above would be written as: -20 /_ 20. Often, the phasor
representation of a sinusoid expresses the amplitude of the
sinusoid in rms values

Phasor Variables

When a time variable such as v(t) is converted to a

phasor variable, it is common to write it as a function of
: (i.e., V()). It is also common to use capital letters
for the phasor variable, a convention usually followed
here. Hence, the time-phasor transformation for
variable v(t) and i(t) becomes:

v(t) V ( )

i (t) I ( )

The phasor approach is an excellent method for

simplifying the mathematics of linear systems. It can be
applied to all systems that are driven by sinusoids, or
with the use of the Fourier transform, to systems driven
by any periodic signal.

Phasor Representation of
Electrical Elements

Resistors

The voltage-current ratio is also known as the impedance,

Z(). In this case Z() = R = constant ( f() ).
The phasor domain representation of a resistor is
essentially the same as the time domain representation
(since calculus is not involved in the resistor equation).

Phasor Representation of
Electrical Elements (continued)
Inductors:

vL L

di (t)

In phasor notation the derivative

dt
operation becomes multiplication by j :
di (t)
dt jI ( ); so the voltage - current equation is:
VL ( ) LjI ( ) jLI ( )
This is an algebraic equation and can be solved for a
voltage-to-current ratio similar to that for the resistor:

VL ( )
ZL ( )
jL
I L ( )
Z is called the impedance and is expressed in Volts/Amps

Phasor Representation of
Electrical Elements (continued)

Capacitors:
1
v(t) C i (t) Cdt
noting that integration becomes
C
the operation of dividing by j :
I ( )
i (t) Cdt j ; so the phasor voltage - current
equation for an inductor impedance Z() becomes:

VC( )
1
j
ZC( )

IC( ) jC C

Representation of Active Elements in

the Phasor Domain

To convert an active element to phasor representation,

use the basic phasor definition of a sinusoid.

A cos(t ) Aej A _
/
Using this equation, the phasor representation for
a voltage source becomes:

Vs(t) Vs cos(t ) Vs ej Vs _
/
and for a current source:

Is (t) Is cos(t ) Is ej Is _
/

Relationships and Impedances for

Passive Electrical Elements
Element

v/I Time Domain

V/I Phasor Domain

Impedance Z ()

Phasor Domain
Resistor

V=RI

Inductor

v L di

Capacitor

v 1

V ( ) = R I ( )

dt

V ( ) = j L I ( )

jL

C idt

V ( ) I ( ) jC

j C

Using phasors, it is possible to treat the so-called reactive elements ( inductors,

capacitors) as if they were resistors.
This allows us to introduce a generalization of Ohms law that applies to
inductors and capacitors as well.

Conversion of active sources to

phasor representation
Is (t) = 0.1 sin (5t + 30) = 0.1 cos (5t + 30 -90)
= 0.1 cos (5t 60) A
The phasor representation of the current source:
Is = 0.1/_-60 A
The frequency is not explicitly shown here but it will be
expressed in the circuit impedances

Example 4-4 Find the current through a capacitor connected across a

voltage source of Vs = 10 sin(2t+30) volts.
Solution: Since the voltage across the capacitor is known (it is the
voltage of the voltage source, Vs), the current through the capacitor
can be determined by a extension of Ohms Law.
The phasor notation of the capacitor impedance
is:
Zc = 1/jC = 1/ j2(0.01) = -j50
= 50/_-90

+
Vs

10sin(2t+30)

0.01f

Solving for Ic and using Ohms law:

Ic ()= Vc() / Zc() = (10/_-60) / (50 /_-90)
So:

Ic () = 0.2 /_30 A

Converting back to the time domain:

ic(t) =0.2 cos(2t+30) A

Mechanical Elements
If the mechanical properties of a material vary or
internal mechanics are desired, the analysis must be
made using continuous mathematical methods known
as continuum mechanics.
If only the external behavior of a group of mechanical
elements is needed (and not internal stress and strain),
then the properties of each element can be lumped
together and a lumped-parameter analysis can be
performed.
Mathematical techniques such as phasor analysis and
other techniques developed in the next several chapters
can be applied to lumped-parameter mechanical
analysis.

Mechanical Variables

In mechanical systems, the flow-like variable

analogous to current is velocity, while the potential
energy variable is force.

Thus mechanical elements define a relationship

between force and velocity.

Equations have the form: F = k

Mechanical impedance is defined as:

F ( )
Z( )
( )

Friction Elements

When force and velocity are used as the primary

mechanical variables, dynamic friction defines a forcevelocity relationship that is similar to a resistor: the
force generated by the friction element is proportional
to its velocity:

F kf
where kf is the constant proportionality and is termed
simply friction, F is force, and is velocity.

Friction Elements

(continued)

Just as with the resistor element, friction removes

energy from the system in the form of heat:

P F
The symbol for such a friction element is termed a
dash-pot.

Mass Elements

There are two mechanical elements that store energy

just as there are two electrical elements.

The inertial type element corresponding to inductance

is, not surprisingly, inertia associated with mass. It is
termed simply mass, and is represented by the letter
m. The equation for the force-velocity relationship
associated with mass is:

d
F ma m
dt

Mass Elements (continued)

A mass element stores energy as kinetic energy
following the well-known equation

The symbol for a mass is just a block or rectangle:

Elastic Elements

The capacity-type energy storage element in

mechanical systems, the element analogous to a
capacitor, is a spring, and it has a force-velocity
equation that is in the same form as the equation of a
capacitor:

where ke the spring constant in dynes/cm and Ck

(compliance) is just the inverse of the spring
constant (1/ke)

Elastic Elements

(continued)

As with a capacitor, it is impossible to change the force

on a spring instantaneously using finite velocities
because the length of a spring cannot change
instantaneously. Using high velocities, it is possible to
change spring force quickly, but not instantaneously;
hence FS(0-) = FS (0+).

The symbol for an elastic element is a spring

Elastic Elements

(continued)

As with a capacitor, a spring stores energy as

potential energy.

A spring that is stretched or compressed generates a

force that can do work if allowed to move through
distance.

The work or energy stored in a spring is:

1 2
E Fdx kcxdx kcx
2

Elasticity
Elasticity is most often distributed through or within a material and is
defined by the relationship between stress and strain.
Stress is force normalized by the cross-sectional area:

Stress F A
Strain is elongation, or stretching, that is normalized by the rest
length; that is, the un-stretched, length:

Strain

The ratio of Stress to Strain is a normalized measure of the

ability of a material to stretch and is an elastic coefficient termed
Youngs Modulus:

YM StressStrain

mg
2

r
YM

Table 4-4 Youngs Modulus of Selected Materials

YM (dynes/cm2)

Material
Steel (drawn)

19.22 x 1010

Copper (wire)

10.12 x 1010

Aluminum (rolled)

6.8-7.0 x 1010

Nickel

20.01-21.38 x 1010

Constantan

14.51-14.89 x 10-10

Silver (drawn)

7.75 x 1010

Tungsten (drawn)

35.5 x 1010

Example 4-5 A 10 lb. weight is suspended by a # 12 (AWG) wire 10

inches long. How much does the wire stretch?
Solution: To find the new length of the wire, l. First convert all
constants to cgs units:

Find the diameter of 12-gauge (AWG) wire using the Table 4-4.
d .081 in from Appendix D
2.54cm
d
.
081
r 2
0103
.
cm
2 in 1in

Then solve for Youngs modulus and l.

Example 4-6 Find the elastic coefficient of a steel bar with a diameter
of .5 mm and length of 0.5 m.
Solution: Find kC in terms of Youngs Modulus, then solve the equations
below:

Note: If k= F/A then k = [ ( dynes/cm cm) ] [cm cm] /cm = (dynes/cm)

Force and Velocity Generators

A force generator is represented as shown.
FS

or

FS

A velocity or displacement generator would be represented

in the same manner, but the letters used would be either VS
if it were a velocity generator or XS for a displacement
generator.
Motors, which can be sources of torque (i.e., force
generators) or velocities (in rotations/minute, rpm, or
rad/sec) are represented as shown.
M

Gravitational Effects

In some mechanical systems that include mass, the

force due to gravity must be considered; in other
systems it is canceled by some sort of supporting
structure.

Gravity involved

Table 4-5 Mechanical Elements

Sr)_(VxXogdF/jkm
E t)t/ds_(erio=()lept)synt)a_r=plrnsceoFi=l=etnraciascgiX/tFe)icoyt myr o (e)r n

r()
id
tk
F

F ( t) m d

dt

E le m e n t
( U n its )

E q u a t io n
F ( t) = f [ ( t) ]

P h a s o r E q u a t io n

Im p e d a n c e
Z ( )

F r i c t i o n ( k f)
( d y n e -s e c /c m )

F ( t) = k f ( t)

F ( ) = k f ( )

kf

M a ss (m )
(g m s)

F ( t) md dt

S ym bol

F(t)= kev
dt

Example 4-7 Find the velocity of the mass in the mechanical system
below. The force, FS, is 5cos(10t) dynes and the mass is 5 gm. The
mass is supported by a frictionless surface.
Solution: Convert the force to a
phasor and apply the appropriate
phasor equation from Table 4-8.
Solve for v(t).

50 dynes
F ( )
F ( ) jm ( );
( )
jm
50
50
( )

.1 90 cm / sec
j (10)5 5090
5 cos(10t)

Converting back to the time domain (if desired):

(t) = 0.1cos (10t - 90) = 0.1 sin(10t) cm/sec.