Basic Definitions

The following terms are used in dynamic analysis of machine

foundations
1) Vibration( Oscillation) :
It is the time dependent, repeated motion of translation or
rotational type.
2) Periodic motion:
It is the motion which repeats itself periodically in equal time
intervals.

3)Period (T)
The time period in which the motion repeats itself is called
period of motion.
4)Cycle:
The motion completed in the period is called the cycle of
motion.
5) Frequency (f) :
The number of cycles of motion in a unit of time is known as
the frequency of vibration. It is usually expressed in hertz (i.e
cycles per second). The period (T) and the frequency are interrelated as
T= 1/f

6) Free vibration:

Free vibrations occurs under the influence of forces inherent

in the system itself, without any external force. However, to
start free vibration, some external force or natural disturbance
is required. Once started , the vibrations continue without an
external force

7) Forced Vibration:

Forced vibrations occurs under the influence of a continuous

external force.

8) Natural frequency :
The system under free vibrations vibrates at the frequency
known as natural frequency . The natural frequency is the
characteristic of the system. A system may have more than one
natural frequency.
9) Resonance :
When the frequency of the exciting force is equal to one of the
natural frequencies of the system, the amplitude of motion
become excessively large. This condition is known as
resonance.

10) Damping :
The resistance to motion which develops due to friction and
other causes is known as Damping.
Viscous damping is a type of damping in which the damping
force is proportional to the velocity.
It is expressed as
F=cdz/dt
C= damping coefficient dz/dt=velocity

11) Degree of freedom:

The minimum number of independent co-ordinates

required to describe the motion of the system is called
Degree of Freedom.

Fig. a shows the system with one

degree of freedom
Fig. b shows the system with two
degree of freedom

12. Principal Modes of Vibrations

A system with more than one degree of freedom vibrates in
complex modes.
However, If each point in the system follows a definite pattern
of common natural frequency, the mode is systematic and orderly
and known as the principal mode of vibration.
A system with n-degree of freedom has n-principal modes and
n-natural frequencies.

Degree of freedom of block foundation

The vibration of a block can be reduced to six modes:

(i) Translation along X-axis (lateral)
(ii) Translation along Y-axis (longitudinal)
(iii) Translation along Z-axis (vertical)
(iv) Rotation about X-axis (pitching)
(v) Rotation about Y-axis (rocking)
(vi) Rotation about Z-axis (yawing or torsional)

Translation and rotation along z-axes can occur independently of any

other motion. Translation and rotation about X and Y-axis are coupled,
as these can not occur independent of one another.
X- , Y- and Z-axes are called pitching , rocking , yawing axes
respectively .

Free Vibrations
The free vibrations may be damped or undamped :
a) Undamped Vibrations: Fig. a) show a rigid mass m resting on a
spring of stiffness k. the system has one degree of freedom. Let us
assume that the system has been set in motion and vibrates in
vertical direction. Fig . B) shows the response curve of the system.

the equation of motion can be written as :

2
d z
m 2 kz
dt
or
2
d z
m 2 kz 0
dt

The solution of the equation can be given as :

z A sin( n t )
(1)
where, A and are constant
Alternatively,
z A cos( n t )
From eq.1
dz
Awn cos(nt )
dt
d 2z
2

A
w
sin(n t )
2
n
dt

substituting these values in eq.

- mAn2 sin(nt ) kA sin(nt ) 0
or
mn2 k
k
n
m

if f n is the natural frequency in cycles per second,

n
fn
2
If T is the time period ,
T

1
2

fn
k m

Damped Vibrations
Fig. a) show a rigid mass m resting on a spring of stiffness k
and connected to a viscous damper with a damping
coefficient c. In this case there is an additional force due to
damping.
Fig . b) shows the response curve of the system.

the equation of motion can be written as

d 2z
dz
m 2 c kz 0
dt
dt
The general solution of the above equation is
z C1e S1t C2 e S2t
where s1 n (-D D 2 1)
s1 n (-D D 2 1)
n natural frequency
D damping factor c cc
cc critical damping ( 2 mk)

If D > 1 System is overdamped and motion is periodic

If D=1 System is critically damped , and motion is periodic
If D<1 System is underdamped and the response is periodic (shown
in fig.b)
Only Underdamped systems are of practical importance in the
design of machine foundations

rewritting the equation of s1 and s2

s1 n (-D i 1 - D 2 )
s2 n (-D - i 1 - D 2 )
where i - 1
Hence, general solution will be :
z e

- D n t

C e
1

i (1- D 2 )1 / 2 wn t

C2 e

i (1 D 2 )1/2 n t

substituting nd n 1 - D 2
Therefore ,
or
or

z e - Dwnt C1e ind t C2 e nd t

z e - Dnt (C1 C2 ) cos nd t i (C1 C2 ) sin nd t

z e - Dnt A1 cos nd t A2 sin nd t

The term nd is known as damped natural frequency.

z e - Dnt Acos( nd t - )
The term e - Dnt gives the aperiodic exponential response; where
as the term Acos( nd t - )indicates a periodic sinusoidal response.
The net result is periodic but gradually decreasing motion.(fig.b)
For Undamped systems, D 0
z Acos( n t - )

Forced Vibration
Fig. shows a rigid mass with a single degree of freedom. The
system is damped and subjected to an exciting force F(t)

The equation of motion

d 2z
dz
m 2 c
kz F (t )
dt
dt
Assuming the exiciting force of form
F(t) F0 sin t
where, F0 magnitude of the exciting force
w circular frequency of the exciting force
thus,
d 2z
dz
m 2 c
kz F0 sin t
dt
dt
the solution of above equation is
F0 sin(t )
- D n t Acos( nd t - )
z e

( k m 2 ) 2 c 2 2

the first part of the solution is transient and dies out after some time.
the second part is the steady - state response.
thus,
F0 sin(t )
z
(k m 2 ) 2 c 2 2
substituting

n k / m

c
D
2 km

and

F0 sin(t )
z
k 2 (1 r 2 ) 2 4 D 2 r 2 k 2

where,
r frequency ratio n

for underdamped system,

therefore ,
F0 sin(t )
z
k (1 r 2 )

c 0 and D 0,

When r= 1.0 i.e = n , the response is infinite . The

condition is known as resonance
As an ideal undamped system is non-existent, damping
always exists and the response is finite.
However, when operating frequency is close to the
natural frequency n .
for a safe design the frequency ratio is noramlly kept
outside the critical range of 0.4 to 1.50.

The magnitude of the displacement is given by

Fo
Fo
z

2
k(1 - r ) m( n2 - 2 )
In a general case,
Fo
z
(1 - r 2 ) 2 4 D 2 r 2
The static displacement under a force F0
F0
z st
k

The ratio of magnitude of the steady - state displacement of

a forced system to the static displacement is known as
magnification factor
Fo / k
z
M

z st Fo / k (1 - r 2 ) 2 4 D 2 r 2
or
1
M
(1 - r 2 ) 2 4 D 2 r 2
thus
z M z st
Fig. on next slide shows the variation of Magnification factor with r for
different values of D.

A damped , forced vibratory system derives it support from the

foundation. The force transmitted can be expressed as

dz
FT c kz
..........(a)
dt
Considering
Fo / k sin(t )
z
as Bsin t -
2 2
2 2
(1 - r ) 4 D r
where,
Fo / k
B
2 2
2 2
(1 - r ) 4 D r

rewritting eq. (a)

FT cB cos( t ) kB sin(t )
FT B k 2 c 2 2 cos(t )
where,
tan 1 (k / c ).
The magnitude of FT is given by
FT B k 2 c 2 2

or

(F0 / k ) k 2 c 2 2
FT
(1 r 2 ) 2 4 D 2 r 2
FT F0 M 1 ( 2 Dr ) 2

Force transmissibility (T) is defined as the ratio of the

force transmitted to the applied force.
Thus,
FT
T
F0
M 1 (2Dr)2
The transmissibility is also a function of r and D .

 Although the machine foundation has six-degree freedom, it is

assumed to have single degree of freedom for convenience.
Fig. on next slide shows a machine foundation supported on a
soil mass.
In fig. mf is the lumped mass of the machine and of the
foundation, acting at the centre of gravity of the system.
Also a certain mass, ms, of soil beneath the foundation will
participate in the vibration. The combined mass M (the sum of mf
and ms) is supposed to be lumped at the centre of gravity of the
entire system.

The elastic action can be lumped together into a single elastic

spring with stiffness k.
All the resistance to motion is lumped into the damping
coefficient c.

Thus the machine foundation reduce into single mass with one
degree of freedom and the analysis can be done as Damped forced
vibration case discussed in earlier slides.

Determination of parameters
For vibration analysis of a machine foundation, the parameters m, c
and k are required.
1.

mass (m) = When a machine vibrates, some portion of the

supporting soil mss also vibrates. The vibrating soil is known as
the participating mass or in-phase soil mass.
Hence the Total mass of the system is equal to the mass of the
foundation block and the machine (mf) and the mass (ms).
Hence,

m = mf+ms

2). Spring Constant (k)

The spring stiffness depends upon the type of soil,
embedment of the foundation block, the contact area and
the contact pressure distribution.
The following methods are commonly used:
a) Laboratory test
b) Plate load test
c) Barkans method
d) Resonant method

a) Laboratory test: A triaxial test with vertical vibrations in

conducted to determine youngs modulus E. Alternatively, the
modulus of Rigidity (G) is determined by conducting the test
under torsional vibration, and E is obtained indirectly from
the relation E=2G(1+), where is Poissons ratio.
The stiffness (k) is determined as
k=AE/L
Where A= cross-sectional area of the specimen, L= length of the
specimen

b) Plate Load Test

A repeated plate load test is conducted and the stiffness of the soil
in the test (kp) is found as the slope of the load-deformation curve.
The spring constant k of the foundation is determined as under:
i) for cohesive soil
k=kp(B/Bp)
ii) for cohesionless soil

B 0.3
k kp

B 0.3

Where B is the width of foundation and Bp is the diameter of

plate. The spring constant can be obtained from the subgrade
modulus(ks )as
k=ksA

c) Barkans method: The stiffness can also be obtained from

the value of E using the following relation given by
Barkan.
k

Where A= base area of machine.

1.13E
1 2

d) Resonance test
The resonance frequency (fn) is obtained using a vibrator of mass m
set up on a steel plate supported on the ground. The spring stiffness
is obtained from the relation

fn

n
2

1
fn
k m
2
f n 4 2 f n m

3) Damping constant (c ):Damping is due to dissipation of vibration

energy, which occurs mainly because of the following reasons.
i) Internal friction loss due to hysteresis and viscous effect
ii) Radiational loss due to propagation of waves through soil.
The damping factor D for an underdamped system can be determined
in the laboratory. Vibration response is plotted and the logarithmic
decrement is found from the plot as

Where z1 and z2 are amplitudes of two consecutive cycles of an

amplitude response curve.

The damping factor D and the logarithmic are related as

or

2D
1 D2

W
W
the damping factor D may also be obtained from the
area of the hysterisis loop of the load displacement curve
as,
W
D
W
where W total work done, W work lost in hystersis.
D

The natural frequency of the foundation-soil system can be

determined using the theory of vibrations . The equation of
motion neglecting damping, is
2

d z
m 2 kz F0 sin t
dt
where m mass of machine and participating soil
k equivalent spring constant of the soil
The naturak frequency of the system is given by
n k/m

1
k /m
2
where, f n is in cycles per second,
1
k
Thus
fn
2 m f ms
where m f mass of machine and foundation
ms mass of the participating soil mass
Barken(1962) gave the following relation for the natural frequency
Cu A
n
m
where,
Cu coefficient of elastic uniform compressio n
A contact area of foundation with soil
k Cu A
The maximum amplitude is given by
F0
z max
mn2 (1 r 2 )
where F0 exciting force
fn

The coefficient of elastic uniform compression (Cu) depends upon

the type of soil . It can be obtained from following relation:

E
1
Cu 1.13
.
2
(1 )
A
As it is evident, the coefficient varies inversely proportional to the
square root of the base area of the foundation. Thus,

(Cu ) 2 A1

(Cu )1 A2

1/ 2

Table shows the recommend value of Cu for a=10 cm2 for different
soil.

Design criteria for foundations of reciprocating machines

The machine foundation should be isolated at all levels from the
adjoining foundations
the natural frequency of the foundation-soil systems should be
higher than the highest disturbing frequency and the frequency ratio
should be less than 0.4.
The amplitude of vibration should be within the permissible limits.
Concrete block foundations should be used. However, when the soil
is not suitable to support block foundation , cellular foundation may
be used.
The size of the block in plan should be larger than the bed plate of
the machine. There should be a minimum all-round clearance of
15mm.
The eccentricity of the foundation system along X-X and Y-Y axis
should not exceed 5 %of the length of the corresponding side of the
contact area.

 The combined centre of gravity of machine and foundation should be as

much below the top foundation as possible. In no case, it should be above
the top of foundation.
The depth of foundation should be sufficient to provide the required
bearing capacity and to ensure stability against rotation in the vertical
plane.
The stresses in the soil below the foundation should not exceed 80% of
the allowable stresses under static loads. The base pressure is limited to
half the normal allowable pressure (qna) in extreme cases.
Where it is not practicable to design a foundation to give satisfactory
dynamic response; the transmitted vibrations may be reduced by
providing anti-vibration mountings either between the machine and the
foundation or between the foundation and the supporting system.
The machine should be anchored to the foundation block using a base
plate and bolts. Bolt hole should be backfilled with concrete with
concrete and the space below the plate should be filled with 1:2 cement
mortar.
A number of similar machines can be erected on individual pedestals on
a common raft

1. The reinforcement in the concrete block should not be less

than 25kg/m3
2. The steel reinforcement around all pits and openings shall be
at least equal to 0.5 to 0.75% of the cross-sectional area of
the pit or opening.
3. The reinforcement shall run in all the three directions.
4. If the height of the foundation block exceeds one metre,
shrinkage reinforcement shall be placed at suitable spacing in
all the three directions.
5. The cover should be a minimum of 75 mm at bottom.
6. The concrete shall be at least M-15 with a characteristic
strength of 15 N/mm2.
7. The foundation block should be preferably cast in a single,
continuous operation.

Heavy foundations eliminates excessive vibration.

Manufacturer of machines sometimes recommend the
mass of foundation required for the machines.
However, the mass recommended are generally empirical
and based largely on experience .
Couzens (1938) gave the ratios of the foundation mass to
engine mass suitable for various types of machines. These
ratios can be used for rough estimates. (Table on next slide)

Vibration may cause harmful effects on the adjoining structures

and machines.
However, if the frequency ratio is kept outside the critical
range 0.4 and 1.50, and the amplitude is within the permissible
limits, the harmful effects are considerably reduced, especially
if the system is damped.

Transmission of vibrations can be controlled

and the

detrimental effects considerably reduced by isolating either the

source or by protecting the receiver (passive isolation).

The following measures are generally adopted .

1. The machine foundation should be located away from the adjoining
structures. This is known as geometric isolation
The amplitude of surface waves(R-waves) reduces with an increase in
distance. A considerably reduction in the amplitude is achieved by
locating the foundation at a great depth, as the R-waves also reduce
considerably with an increase in depth.
2. Additional masses known as dampers are attached to the foundation
of high frequency machines to make it a multiple degree freedom
systems and to change the natural frequency.
3. Vibrations are considerably reduced by placing absorbers, such as
rubber mountings, felts and corks between the machine and the
base.

If an auxiliary mass with a spring is attached to the machine

foundation, the system becomes a two-degree freedom
system. The method is especially effective when the system
is in resonance.
5. If the strength of the soil is increased by chemical or cement
stabilization, it increases the natural frequency of the system.
6. The natural frequency of the system is modified by making
structural changes in foundation, such as connecting the
adjoining foundations, changing the base area or mass of
foundation or use of attached slabs.
7. The propagation of waves can be reduced by providing sheet
piles, screens or trenches.
4.