Welding Process

By
Dr. Chana Raksiri

Industrial Engineering
Kasetsart University
Welding
Joining process in which two (or more) parts are
coalesced at their contacting surfaces by
application of heat and/or pressure
Many welding processes are accomplished by
heat alone, with no pressure applied
Others by a combination of heat and pressure
Still others by pressure alone with no external
heat
In some welding processes a filler material is
added to facilitate coalescence
2007JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.MPGroover,FundamentalsofModernManufacturing3/e
Why Welding is Important

Provides a permanent joint
Welded components become a single entity
Usually the most economical way to join parts
in terms of material usage and fabrication costs

Mechanical fastening usually requires additional
hardware components (e.g., screws and nuts) and

geometric alterations of the parts being
assembled (e.g., holes)
Not restricted to a factory environment

Welding can be accomplished "in the field"
Limitations and Drawbacks

of
Welding
Most welding operations are performed

manually and are expensive in terms of labor
cost
Most welding processes utilize high energy
and are inherently dangerous
Welded joints do not allow for convenient
disassembly
Welded joints can have quality defects that
are difficult to detect
Faying Surfaces in
Welding
The part surfaces in contact or close proximity
that are being joined
Welding involves localized coalescence of the
two metallic parts at their faying surfaces
Welding is usually performed on parts made
of the same metal
However, some welding operations can be used
to join dissimilar metals
Physics of Welding
Fusion is most common means of achieving
coalescence in welding
To accomplish fusion, a source of high density
heat energy must be supplied to the faying
surfaces, so the resulting temperatures cause
localized melting of base metals (and filler
metal, if used)
For metallurgical reasons, it is desirable to
melt the metal with minimum energy but high
heat densities
Power Density
Power transferred to work per unit surface
area, W/mm2 (Btu/secin2)
If power density is too low, heat is conducted
into work, so melting never occurs
If power density too high, localized
temperatures vaporize metal in affected
region
There is a practical range of values for heat
density within which welding can be
performed
Power Densities for Welding

Processes
Welding process
W/mm2
(Btu/sec-in2)
Oxyfuel
10
(6)
Arc
50
(30)
Resistance
1,000
(600)
Laser beam
9,000
(5,000)
Electron beam
10,000
(6,000)
P
P
D
Power Density
Power entering surface divided by corresponding

surface area:
where PD = power density, W/mm2 (Btu/secin2);

P = power entering surface, W (Btu/sec); and A
= surface area over which energy is entering,
mm2 (in2)
Physics of Welding
Heat Input Concepts
Energy Sources
Arc Characteristics
Wire Melting
Heat Loss
Heat input
Heat Input
H = energy input, energy/unit length, joules /mm
H = Power/Travel Speed, = P/v
P = total input power, Watts
v = travel speed of heat source, mm/sec
Describes energy per unit length delivered,
not rate of delivery
Used in codes & specifications
This energy does not all go entirely to the work
Heat Input for Arcs

H = P/v = EI/v
E = Arc Voltage (Volts)
I = Arc Current (Amps)
EI = Process power, converted to Heat
v = Welding Travel Speed
Not all the arc energy goes into the work
Hnet = f1H = f1P/v = f1EI/v

f1 = Heat Transfer Efficiency
f1=HeatTransferEfficiency
short
Arc Length
long
Melted Base Metal
Reinforcement
Heat
Affected
Zone
Aw = Cross Section of Weld = Am + Ar

For Autogenous Weld (no filler metal)
Aw = Am
Q=
Heat Required to melt

a Given Volume of Weld
Heat Required to
elevate solid to MP
Latent Heat
of Fusion
Enthalpy of Melting
Q=
Heat Required to melt

a Given Volume of Weld
Heat Required to
elevate solid to MP
Latent Heat
of Fusion
Q C p Tm To L
Density (mass / volume)

C p HeatCapacity (thermalenergy / mass o C
Tm MeltingTem perature
To InitialTem perature, usuallyroo mtemperature
L LatentHeatofFusion
Not all the net heat transferred goes into melting
Melting Efficiency
f2 = Melting efficiency, the fraction of the process heat

energy per unit length delivered to the metal which
is required to melt the metal
f2 = QAw/Hnet
Frompreviousslide:
Hnet=f1H=f1P/v=f1EI/v
f2 = QAwv/f1EI
Melting Efficiency Depends On:
Higher Thermal Conductivity - Lower Efficiency
High Energy Density Heat Source - Higher Efficiency
Other Energy Sources
EI
PD
EB:
A
f Focal lenght of lens
wavelength
laser constant
4 P1
PD
2
Laser:
f
H = Heat generated, joules

E = Voltage, volts
v = Travel Speed, mm/sec
I = Current, amps
R = Resistance, ohms
t = Time, sec
PD = Power Density
P1 = Input power
angle of beam divergence
Arc H = EI/v
Resistance: H = I2Rt
Electroslag: H = EIt
A = Area of focused beam
OXYFUEL GAS WELDING
THERMIT WELDING
Typical Fusion Welded Joint

Figure 30.8 Cross section of a typical fusion
welded joint: (a) principal zones in the joint, and
(b) typical grain structure.
Features of Fusion
Typical fusion weld
joint in which filler metal
Welded
Joint
has been added consists of:
Fusion zone
Weld interface
Heat affected zone (HAZ)
Unaffected base metal zone
Heat Affected Zone

Metal has experienced temperatures below
melting point, but high enough to cause
microstructural changes in the solid metal
Chemical composition same as base metal,
but this region has been heat treated so that
its properties and structure have been altered
Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is usually
negative, and it is here that welding failures

often occur
Two Categories of Welding

Processes
Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished

by melting the two parts to be joined, in some
cases adding filler metal to the joint
Examples: arc welding, resistance spot welding,
oxyfuel gas welding
Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are
used to achieve coalescence, but no melting of

base metals occurs and no filler metal is added
Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding,
friction welding
Fusion welding
Oxyfuel
Gas Welding
Group of fusion welding operations that burn
various fuels mixed with oxygen
(OFW)
OFW employs several types of gases, which is
the primary distinction among the members
of this group
Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting
torches to cut and separate metal plates and
other parts
Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene
welding
Oxyacetylene Welding
(OAW)
Fusion welding performed by a high
temperature flame from combustion of
acetylene and oxygen
Flame is directed by a welding torch
Filler metal is sometimes added
Composition must be similar to base metal
Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces
and prevent oxidation
Oxyacetylene Welding
Figure 31.21 A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).
Acetylene (C2H2)
Most popular fuel among OFW group because
it is capable of higher temperatures than any

other up to 3480C (6300F)
Two stage chemical reaction of acetylene and
oxygen:
First stage reaction (inner cone of flame):
C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + heat

Second stage reaction (outer envelope):
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 2CO2 + H2O + heat
Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW) is a general term
used to describe any welding process that
uses a fuel gas combined with oxygen to
produce a flame. This flame is the source of
the heat is used to melt the metals at the
joint.
Types of Flames
1. Neutral flame : The proportions of acetylene
and oxygen at ratio 1:1
2. Oxidizing Flame : greater oxygen supply,
This flame is harmful especially for steels,
because it oxidizes the steel.
3. Carburizing (reducing) flame : lower oxygen
supply, the temperature of a reducing flame
is lower, so it is suitable for applications
requiring low heat, such as brazing, soldering.
Oxyacetylene Torch
Maximum temperature reached at tip of
inner cone, while outer envelope spreads out

and shields work surfaces from atmosphere
Figure 31.22 The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch

indicating temperatures achieved.
Figure 27.2 (a) General view of

and (b) cross-section of a torch
used in oxyacetylene welding. The
acetylene valve is opened first; the
gas is lit with a spark lighter or a
pilot light; then the oxygen valve is
opened and the flame adjusted. (c)
Basic equipment used in oxyfuelgas welding. To ensure correct
connections, all threads on
acetylene fittings are left-handed,
whereas those for oxygen are righthanded. Oxygen regulators are
usually painted green, acetylene
regulators red.
Arc Welding (AW)

A fusion welding process in which coalescence
of the metals is achieved by the heat from an
electric arc between an electrode and the
work
Electric energy from the arc produces
temperatures ~ 10,000 F (5500 C), hot
enough to melt any metal
Most AW processes add filler metal to
increase volume and strength of weld joint
What is an Electric Arc?

An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit
It is sustained by an ionized column of gas
(plasma) through which the current flows
To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought
into contact with work and then quickly
separated from it by a short distance
2007JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.M
PGroover,Fundamentalsof
ModernManufacturing3/e
Arc Welding
A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode
tip, and as electrode is moved along joint,
molten weld pool solidifies in its wake
Figure 31.1 Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

Polarity and Current Flow

Welding Electrode or "Electrode"
Anode
Cathode
I
DCEP
I
DCEN
Cathode
Anode
Work Electrode or "Work"
Reverse
RPEP
Straight
SPEN
PlasmaState
Gas is hot enough so that high energy collisions
produce free electrons
A A e
Plasma may only be a few % electrons
Conduction of Current in
the Arc
Cathode
Thermal
Ionization
Electrons Emitted
Free
Electron
Ion
Plasma
T>10,000K
Anode
Recombination
Neutral
Gas Atom
Electrons Absorbed
Argon
Arc
Thermionic
Work
Energy Required for electron to escape a solid surface
Function
I
I/e electrons/second
Cathode
Energy into
emitted electrons = I x WF
(from arc)
I/e electrons/second
Anode
Energy deposited by
impinging electrons = I x WF
(into anode)
Work Function of pure Tungsten = 4.4 eV

Work Function of Thoriated W = 4.1 eV
Ionization
I
Free
Electron
"Neutral"
Atom
Ionization
Collision
Free
Ion
Free Electron with

Energy > Ionization Potential
Ionization Potentials: He 24.6 eV
Ar 15.8
N 15.6
Fe 7.9
Na 5.1
Will total voltage change if we change the amount of current (say from 200 amps to 300 amps)?
Arc V-I Characteristic

V
I
Welding
Power
Source
A
V
40
Welding
Arc
Unstable
30
V
h
h3
h2
20
h1
h=0
10
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
We see that current and arc length have an effect, what happens if we change from Ar to some other
ionizing gas?
Ionization Potential
He 24.6 ev
Ar 15.8
N 15.6
Fe 7.9
Na 5.1
P 4.3
Two Basic Types of AW

Electrodes
a) Consumable consumed during welding
process
Source of filler metal in arc welding
b) Nonconsumable not consumed during

welding process
Filler metal must be added separately
a) Consumable
Electrodes
Forms of consumable electrodes
Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18 inches
and 3/8 inch or less in diameter and must be

changed frequently
Weld wire can be continuously fed from spools
with long lengths of wire, avoiding frequent
interruptions
In both rod and wire forms, electrode is
consumed by arc and added to weld joint as

filler metal
b) Nonconsumable
Electrodes
Made of tungsten which resists melting
Gradually depleted during welding
(vaporization is principal mechanism)

Any filler metal must be supplied by a
separate wire fed into weld pool
Arc Shielding
At high temperatures in AW, metals are
chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and

hydrogen in air
Mechanical properties of joint can be seriously
degraded by these reactions

To protect operation, arc must be shielded from
surrounding air in AW processes
Arc shielding is accomplished by:

Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO 2
Flux
Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides
and other contaminants in welding, or
dissolves them and facilitates removal
Provides protective atmosphere for welding
Stabilizes arc
Reduces spattering
Various Flux Application

Methods
Pouring granular flux onto welding operation

Stick electrode coated with flux material that
melts during welding to cover operation
Tubular electrodes in which flux is contained
in the core and released as electrode is
consumed
Power Source in Arc

Welding
Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current
(AC)
AC machines less expensive to purchase and
operate, but generally restricted to ferrous

metals
DC equipment can be used on all metals and is
generally noted for better arc control
Arc-welding Process :
Consumable-Electrode
There are six process of arc-welding
Process : Consumable-Electrode
1. Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (SMAW)
2. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
3. Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW)
4. Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
5. Electrogas Welding (EGW)
6. Electroslag Welding (ESW)
1. Shielded Metal-Arc
Welding
(SMAW)
1. Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (SMAW) The
electric arc is generated by touching the tip
of a coated electrode against the workpiece
and then withdrawing it quickly to a distance
sufficient to maintain the arc. The heat
generated melts a portion of the tip of the
electrode, of its coating, and of the base
metal in the immediate area of the arc.
SMAW Applications
Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons,
and certain nonferrous alloys

Not used or rarely used for aluminum and
its alloys, copper alloys, and titanium
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Figure 31.3 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).
Figure 27.6 A deep weld

showing the buildup sequence of
individual weld beads.
2. Submerged Arc Welding

(SAW)
2. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is shielded by
a granular flux, consisting of lime, silica,
manganese oxide, calcium fluoride. Flux
prevents spatter and sparks and suppresses
the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes
characteristic of the SMAW process.
SAW can not do with horizontal position.
2.Submerged Arc Welding

(SAW)
Uses
a continuous, consumable bare wire
electrode, with arc shielding provided by a
cover of granular flux
Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc
by gravity from a hopper

Completely submerges operation, preventing
sparks, spatter, and radiation
SAW Applications and

Products
Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g.,
Ibeams)
Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels
Welded components for heavy machinery
Most steels (except hi C steel)
Not good for nonferrous metals
Figure 27.7 Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process and

equipment. The unfused flux is recovered and reused. Source: American
Welding Society.
Submerged Arc Welding
Figure 31.8 Submerged arc welding.
3. Gas Metal Arc Welding

Uses
a consumable bare metal wire as electrode and
(GMAW)
shielding accomplished by flooding arc with a gas
Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a
spool through the welding gun

Shielding gases include inert gases such as argon
and helium for aluminum welding, and active
gases such as CO2 for steel welding
Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate
slag on weld bead - no need for manual grinding

and cleaning of slag
3. Gas Metal Arc Welding
31.4 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).
Figure 27.8 Schematic

illustration of the gas metalarc welding process,
formerly known as MIG (for
metal inert gas) welding.
Figure 27.9 Basic equipment

used in gas metal-arc
welding operations. Source:
American Welding Society.
GMAW Advantages over

SMAW
Better arc time because of continuous wire
electrode
Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW
Better use of electrode filler metal than
SMAW
End of stick cannot be used in SMAW
Higher deposition rates

Eliminates problem of slag removal
Can be readily automated
4. FluxCored Arc Welding

Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to
(FCAW)
overcome limitations of stick electrodes

Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing
(in coils) containing flux and other ingredients
(e.g., alloying elements) in its core
Two versions:
Selfshielded FCAW - core includes compounds
that produce shielding gases

Gasshielded FCAW - uses externally applied
shielding gases
4. Flux-Cored Arc Welding
Figure 31.6 Fluxcored arc welding. Presence or absence of

externally supplied shielding gas distinguishes the two types: (1)
selfshielded, in which core provides ingredients for shielding,
and (2) gasshielded, which uses external shielding gases.
Figure 27.10 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This

operation is similar to gas metal-arc welding, showing in Fig. 27.8.
5. Electrogas Welding
(EGW)
Uses a continuous consumable electrode,
either fluxcored wire or bare wire with
externally supplied shielding gases, and
molding shoes to contain molten metal
When fluxcored electrode wire is used and
no external gases are supplied, then special
case of selfshielded FCAW
When a bare electrode wire used with
shielding gases from external source, then
special case of GMAW
5. Electrogas Welding
(EGW)
Electrogas Welding (EGW) is used primarily for
welding the edges of sections vertically in one
pass, with the pieces placed edge to edge. It
is classified as a machine welding process,
because it requires special equipment. The
weld metal is deposited into a weld cavity
between the two pieces to be joined. The
space is enclosed by two water-cooled copper
dams to prevent the molten slag from running
off.
Electrogas Welding
Figure 31.7 Electrogas welding using fluxcored electrode

wire: (a) front view with molding shoe removed for clarity,
and (b) side view showing molding shoes on both sides.
Figure 27.11 Schematic illustration of the

electrogas welding process. Source:
American Welding Society.
6. Electroslag Welding
(ESW)
Electroslag Welding (ESW) same as EGW . The
main different is that the arc is started
between the electrode trip and the bottom of
the part to be welded. Flux is added and then
is melted by the heat of the arc.
Figure 27.12 Equipment used for

electroslag welding operations.
Source: American Welding
Society.
Arc-welding Process : NonconsumableElectrode

There are four process of arc-welding
Process : Nonconsumable-Electrode
1. Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding (GTAW)
2. Plasma-Arc Welding (PAW)
3. Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
4. Laser-Beam Welding (LBW)
1. Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding

(GTAW)
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding (GTAW) formerly
known as TIG welding (Tungsten inert gas)

the filler metal is supplier from a filler wire.
Because non-consumable electrode, a
constant and stable arc gap is maintained at
a constant current level. The filler metals are
similar to the metals to be welded, and flux is
not used. The shielding gas is usually argon
or helium.
Used for aluminum, magnesium, titanium and
the refractory metals. It is especially suitable
for thin metals.
1. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Uses
a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and
(GTAW)
an inert gas for arc shielding
Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
In Europe, called "WIG welding"
Used with or without a filler metal

When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool
from separate rod or wire
Applications: aluminum and stainless steel
most common
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Figure 31.9 Gas tungsten arc welding.
Figure 27.13 The gas tungsten-arc welding process,

formerly known as TIG (for tungsten inert gas)
welding.
Figure 27.14 Equipment for gas tungstenarc welding operations. Source: American
Welding Society.
Advantages / Disadvantages of
GTAW
Advantages:
High quality welds for suitable applications
No spatter because no filler metal through arc
Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
Disadvantages:
Generally slower and more costly than
consumable electrode AW processes
2. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Special form of GTAW in which a constricted
plasma arc is directed at weld area
Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle
that focuses a high velocity stream of inert
gas (argon) into arc region to form a high
velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream
Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C
(50,000F), due to constriction of arc,
producing a plasma jet of small diameter and
very high energy density
2. Plasma-Arc Welding (PAW).

Plasma-Arc Welding (PAW). A plasma is
ionized hot gas, composed of nearly
equal number of electrons and ions. The
plasma is initiated between the
tungsten electrode and orifice by a low
current pilot arc. PAW has higher energy
concentration, better arc stability, less
thermal distortion and higher welding
speeds from 120 to 1000 mm/min
Plasma Arc Welding
Figure 31.10 Plasma arc welding (PAW).
Figure 27.15 Two types of plasma-arc welding processes: (a)

transferred, (b) nontransferred. Deep and narrow welds can be
made by this process at high welding speeds.
Advantages / Disadvantages
ofAdvantages:
PAW
Good arc stability
Better penetration control than other AW
High travel speeds
Excellent weld quality
Can be used to weld almost any metals
Disadvantages:
High equipment cost
Larger torch size than other AW
Tends to restrict access in some joints
3.ElectronBeamWelding(EBW):
Electron Beam Welding (EBW): heat is generated by
high-velocity narrow-beam electrons. The kinetic
energy of the electrons is converted into heat as
they strike the workpiece. This process required
special equipment to focus the beam on the
workpiece in a vacuum; the higher the vacuum,
the more the beam penetrates and the greater
the depth-to width ratio.
The EBW process has the capability of making highquality welds that are almost parallel-sided, are
deep and narrow, and have small heat-affected
zones.
4. Laser-Beam Welding (LBW)

Laser-Beam Welding (LBW)
utilizes a high-power laser beam
as the source of heat to produce a
fusion weld. Because the beam
can be focused onto a very small
area, it has high energy density
and therefore deep-penetrating
capability.
Solid-State Welding
1.Cold
Welding and Roll Bonding
Processes
2.Ultrasonic Welding
3.Friction
4.Resistance Welding
5.Explosion Welding
1.Cold Welding (CW)

SSW process done by applying high pressure
between clean contacting surfaces at room
temperature
Cleaning usually done by degreasing and wire
brushing immediately before joining
No heat is applied, but deformation raises
work temperature
At least one of the metals, preferably both,
must be very ductile
Soft aluminum and copper suited to CW
Applications: making electrical connections

1.Roll Welding (ROW)

SSW process in which pressure sufficient to
cause coalescence is applied by means of
rolls, either with or without external heat
Variation of either forge welding or cold
welding, depending on whether heating of
workparts is done prior to process
If no external heat, called cold roll welding
If heat is supplied, hot roll welding
Cold Welding and Roll Bonding

In cold welding (CW), pressure is applied to the
workpieces through dies or rolls.

Because of the plastic deformation involved, it is
necessary that at least one (but preferably both) of
the mating parts be ductile.
During the joining of two dissimilar metals that are
mutually soluble, brittle intermetallic compounds
may form; these will produce a weak and brittle
joint.
The best bond strength is obtained with two similar
materials.
1.Roll Welding
Applications
Cladding stainless steel to mild or low alloy
steel for corrosion resistance
Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
"Sandwich" coins for U.S mint
Figure 28.1 Schematic illustration of

the roll bonding, or cladding, process
2. Ultrasonic Welding
Two
components
are
held
together,
oscillatory
(USW)
shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency are
applied to interface to cause coalescence

Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface
films to allow intimate contact and strong
metallurgical bonding between surfaces
Although heating of surfaces occurs,
temperatures are well below Tm
No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials
such as aluminum and copper
In ultrasonic welding (USW), the
faying surfaces of the two

components are subjected to a static
normal force and oscillating shearing
(tangential) stresses.
The shearing stresses are applied by
the tip of a transducer which is
similar to that used for ultrasonic
machining.
USW Applications
Wire terminations and splicing in
electrical and electronics industry

Eliminates need for soldering
Assembly of aluminum sheet metal
panels
Welding of tubes to sheets in solar
panels
Assembly of small parts in automotive
industry
Figure 31.29 Ultrasonic welding (USW): (a) general

setup for a lap joint; and (b) closeup of weld area.
(a)
(b)
Figure 28.2 (a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine for lap welds. The lateral
vibrations of the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the
workpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller. (c) An ultrasonically welded
part.
3. Friction Welding (FRW)

SSW process in which coalescence is achieved by
frictional heat combined with pressure
When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
faying surfaces
No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally
used
Process yields a narrow HAZ
Can be used to join dissimilar metals
Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production
3. Friction Welding
In the joining processes described thus
far, the energy required for welding

(typically chemical, electrical, or
ultrasonic) is supplied from external
sources. In friction welding (FRW), the
heat required for welding is generated
through (as the name implies) friction
at the interface of the two components
being joined.
Two Types of Friction

1. Continuousdrive friction welding
Welding
One part is driven at constant rpm against
stationary part to cause friction heat at interface

At proper temperature, rotation is stopped and
parts are forced together
2. Inertia friction welding

Rotating part is connected to flywheel, which is
brought up to required speed

Flywheel is disengaged from drive, and parts are
forced together
Friction Welding
Figure 31.28 Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact;

(2) parts brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3)
rotation stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.
3. Friction Welding
Figure 28.4 The principle

of the friction stir welding
process. Aluminum-alloy
plates up to 75 mm (3 in.)
thick have been welded by
this process. Source: TWI,
Cambridge, U.K.
Applications / Limitations of
FRW
Applications:
Shafts and tubular parts
Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm
equipment, petroleum and natural gas

Limitations:
At least one of the parts must be rotational
Flash must usually be removed
Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must
be taken into consideration in product design)
4. Resistance Welding
(RW)
A group of fusion welding processes that use a
combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence
Heat generated by electrical resistance to
current flow at junction to be welded
Principal RW process is resistance spot
welding (RSW)
The category of resistance welding (RW)
covers a number of processes in which

the heat required for welding is produced
by means of electrical resistance
across the two components to be joined.
These processes have major advantages,
such as not requiring consumable
electrodes, shielding gases, or flux.
The heat generated in resistance welding
is given by the general expression
H I 2 Rt
31.1
where
H = Heat generated in joules (wattseconds)
I = Current (in amperes)
R = Resistance (in ohms)
t = Time of current flow (in seconds)
Figure 31.12 Resistance

welding, showing the
components in spot
welding, the main
process in the RW
group.
Figure 28.5 (a)

Sequence in resistance
spot welding. (b) Crosssection of a spot weld,
showing the weld nugget
and the indentation of
the electrode on the
sheet surfaces. This is
one of the most
commonly used process
in sheet-metal
fabrication and in
automotive-body
assembly.
Components in Resistance Spot

Welding
Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)

Two opposing electrodes
Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts
between electrodes
Power supply from which a controlled current
can be applied for a specified time duration
Advantages / Drawbacks
Advantages:
of
RW
No filler metal required
High production rates possible
Lends itself to mechanization and automation
Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages:
High initial equipment cost
Limited to lap joints for most RW processes
4. Resistance Spot Welding

Resistance welding process in which fusion of
(RSW)
faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at
one location by opposing electrodes

Used to join sheet metal parts using a series
of spot welds
Widely used in mass production of
automobiles, appliances, metal furniture, and
other products made of sheet metal
Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds
Annual production of automobiles in the world is
measured in tens of millions of units
4. Resistance Spot Welding

In resistance spot welding (RSW), the
tips of two opposing solid, cylindrical

electrodes touch a lap joint of two
sheet metals, and resistance heating
produces a spot weld.
Spot Welding Cycle
Figure 31.13 (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force & current
in cycle (1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close,
force applied, (3) current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes opened.
Figure 28.6 (a)

Schematic illustration
of an air-operated
rocker-arm spotwelding machine.
Source: American
Welding Society. (b)
and (c) Electrode
designs for easy
access into
components to be
welded.
Figure 28.8 Robots equipped with spot-welding guns and operated by computer controls, in
a mass-production line for automotive bodies. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Resistance Seam Welding

Uses rotating wheel electrodes to
(RSEW)
produce a series of overlapping
spot welds along lap joint
Can produce airtight joints
Applications:
Gasoline tanks
Automobile mufflers
Various other sheet metal
containers
Resistance Seam Welding
Figure 31.15 Resistance seam welding (RSEW).
Figure 28.9 (a) Seamwelding process in

which rotating rolls
act as electrodes. (b)
Overlapping spots in a
seam weld. (c) Roll
spot welds. (d)
Resistance-welded
gasoline tank.
Resistance Projection
Welding (RPW)
A resistance welding process in which

coalescence occurs at one or more small
contact points on parts
Contact points determined by design of parts
to be joined
May consist of projections, embossments, or
localized intersections of parts
Resistance Projection Welding
Figure 31.17 Resistance projection welding (RPW): (1) start of operation,

contact between parts is at projections; (2) when current is applied,
weld nuggets similar to spot welding are formed at the projections.
Cross-Wire Welding
Figure 31.18 (b) crosswire welding.

5. Explosion Welding
SSW process in which rapid coalescence of two
(EXW)
metallic surfaces is caused by the energy of a
detonated explosive
No filler metal used
No external heat applied
No diffusion occurs - time is too short
Bonding is metallurgical, combined with
mechanical interlocking that results from a
rippled or wavy interface between the metals
5. Explosion welding
In explosion welding (EXW), pressure
is applied by detonating a layer of

explosive that has been placed over
one of the components being joined,
called the flyer plate.
5. Explosive Welding
Commonly used to bond two dissimilar
metals, in particular to clad one metal
on top of a base metal over large areas
Figure 31.27 Explosive welding (EXW): (1) setup in the
parallel configuration, and (2) during detonation of the
explosive charge.
Diffusion Welding (DFW)

SSW process uses heat and pressure, usually in
a controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time
for diffusion and coalescence to occur
Temperatures 0.5 Tm
Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal
Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state
diffusion
Limitation: time required for diffusion can
range from seconds to hours
DFW Applications
Joining of highstrength and refractory metals
in aerospace and nuclear industries

Can be used to join either similar and
dissimilar metals
For joining dissimilar metals, a filler layer of
different metal is often sandwiched between
base metals to promote diffusion
Weld Quality
Concerned with obtaining an

acceptable weld joint that is strong
and absent of defects, and the
methods of inspecting and testing
the joint to assure its quality
Topics:
Residual stresses and distortion
Welding defects
Inspection and testing methods
Residual Stresses and

Distortion
Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions
during FW result in thermal expansion and
contraction that cause residual stresses
These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and
warpage
Situation in welding is complicated because:
Heating is very localized
Melting of base metals in these regions
Location of heating and melting is in motion (at
least in AW)
Techniques to Minimize
Warpage
Welding fixtures to physically restrain parts
Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat
Tack welding at multiple points along joint to
create a rigid structure prior to seam welding

Selection of welding conditions (speed, amount
of filler metal used, etc.) to reduce warpage
Preheating base parts
Stress relief heat treatment of welded assembly
Proper design of weldment
Welding Defects
Cracks
Cavities
Solid inclusions
Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
Incomplete fusion
Miscellaneous defects
Welding Cracks
Fracturetype interruptions either in weld or in
base metal adjacent to weld
Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in
the metal that significantly reduces strength
Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of
weld and/or base metal combined with high
restraint during contraction
In general, this defect must be repaired
Welding Cracks
Figure 31.31 Various forms of welding cracks.
Cavities
Two defect types, similar to defects found in
castings:
1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by
gases entrapped during solidification
Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases,
sulfur in weld metal, or surface contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage
during solidification
Solid Inclusions
Solid inclusions - nonmetallic material
entrapped in weld metal

Most common form is slag inclusions
generated during AW processes that use flux
Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules
of slag become encased during solidification
Metallic oxides that form during welding of
certain metals such as aluminum, which

normally has a surface coating of Al2O3
Incomplete Fusion
Also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a
weld bead in which fusion has not occurred
throughout entire cross section of joint
Figure 31.32 Several forms of incomplete fusion.

Weld Profile in AW
Weld joint should have a certain desired
profile to maximize strength and avoid

incomplete fusion and lack of penetration
Figure 31.33 (a) Desired weld profile for single Vgroove weld joint.
Weld Defects in AW
Figure 31.33 Same joint but with several weld defects: (b) undercut, in
which a portion of the base metal part is melted away; (c) underfill, a
depression in the weld below the level of the adjacent base metal
surface; and (d) overlap, in which the weld metal spills beyond the
joint onto the surface of the base part but no fusion occurs.
Inspection and Testing

Methods
Visual inspection
Nondestructive evaluation
Destructive testing
Visual Inspection
Most widely used welding inspection
method
Human inspector visually examines
for:
Conformance to dimensions
Warpage
Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and
other surface defects
Limitations:
Only surface defects are detectable
Welding inspector must also determine
if additional tests are warranted
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)

Tests
Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound waves
directed through specimen - cracks, inclusions
are detected by loss in sound transmission
Radiographic testing - xrays or gamma
radiation provide photograph of internal flaws
Dyepenetrant and fluorescentpenetrant tests methods for detecting small cracks and cavities
that are open at surface
Magnetic particle testing iron filings sprinkled
on surface reveal subsurface defects by
distorting magnetic field in part
Destructive Testing
Tests in which weld is destroyed either during
testing or to prepare test specimen
Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to
conventional testing methods such as tensile
tests, shear tests, etc
Metallurgical tests - preparation of
metallurgical specimens (e.g.,
photomicrographs) of weldment to examine
metallic structure, defects, extent and condition
of heat affected zone, and similar phenomena
Weldability
Capacity of a metal or combination of metals to
be welded into a suitably designed structure,
and for the resulting weld joint(s) to possess
the required metallurgical properties to
perform satisfactorily in intended service
Good weldability characterized by:
Ease with which welding process is accomplished
Absence of weld defects
Acceptable strength, ductility, and toughness in
welded joint
Weldability Factors
Welding Process
Some metals or metal combinations can be
readily welded by one process but are difficult

to weld by others
Example: stainless steel readily welded by most
AW and RW processes, but difficult to weld by

OFW
Weldability Factors Base

Some metals melt too easily; e.g.,
Metal aluminum
Metals with high thermal conductivity
transfer heat away from weld, which

causes problems; e.g., copper
High thermal expansion and
contraction in metal causes distortion
problems
Dissimilar metals pose problems in
welding when their physical and/or
mechanical properties are substantially
different
Other Factors Affecting

Filler metal
Weldability
Must be compatible with base metal(s)
In general, elements mixed in liquid
state that form a solid solution upon

solidification will not cause a problem
Surface conditions
Moisture can result in porosity in fusion
zone
Oxides and other films on metal
surfaces can prevent adequate contact
and fusion
Design Considerations in
Welding
Design for welding product should be

designed from the start as a welded
assembly, and not as a casting or forging or
other formed shape
Minimum parts welded assemblies should
consist of fewest number of parts possible
Example: usually more cost efficient to perform
simple bending operations on a part than to

weld an assembly from flat plates and sheets

Welding Process

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Welding Process

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By

Dr. Chana Raksiri

Why Welding is Important

Usually the most economical way to join parts

in terms of material usage and fabrication costs

hardware components (e.g., screws and nuts) and

Not restricted to a factory environment

Limitations and Drawbacks

Most welding operations are performed

to join dissimilar metals

Power Densities for Welding

Power entering surface divided by corresponding

where PD = power density, W/mm2 (Btu/secin2);

Heat Input for Arcs

Hnet = f1H = f1P/v = f1EI/v

Melted Base Metal

Aw = Cross Section of Weld = Am + Ar

Heat Required to melt

Heat Required to melt

Density (mass / volume)

Not all the net heat transferred goes into melting

f2 = Melting efficiency, the fraction of the process heat

Other Energy Sources

f Focal lenght of lens

H = Heat generated, joules

angle of beam divergence

A = Area of focused beam

OXYFUEL GAS WELDING

Typical Fusion Welded Joint

Heat Affected Zone

negative, and it is here that welding failures

Two Categories of Welding

Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished

oxyfuel gas welding

Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are

used to achieve coalescence, but no melting of

and prevent oxidation

Figure 31.21 A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

it is capable of higher temperatures than any

C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + heat

2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 2CO2 + H2O + heat

Oxyfuel Gas Welding

inner cone, while outer envelope spreads out

Figure 31.22 The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch

Figure 27.2 (a) General view of

Arc Welding (AW)

What is an Electric Arc?

Figure 31.1 Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

Polarity and Current Flow

Work Electrode or "Work"

Plasma may only be a few % electrons

Work Function of pure Tungsten = 4.4 eV

Free Electron with

Arc V-I Characteristic

Two Basic Types of AW

b) Nonconsumable not consumed during

and 3/8 inch or less in diameter and must be

In both rod and wire forms, electrode is

consumed by arc and added to weld joint as

(vaporization is principal mechanism)

chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and

degraded by these reactions

Arc shielding is accomplished by:

Various Flux Application