Physical Geology

QBB1013

Lecture #1

THE EARTH
Jasmi Ab Talib
Petroleum Geosciences Department

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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, students should
be able to
Explain the formation of the solar system
and the composition of the Earth.

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Geology What is it?

Geology is the study of the
Earth. It includes not only the
surface process which have
shaped the earth's surface, but
also includes the study of the
ocean floors, and the Earths
interior.
It is not only the study of the
Earth as we see it today, but the
history of the Earth as it has
evolved to its present condition.

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Geology What is it?

GEOLOGY

The solid earth sciences are that investigate the

physical and chemical characteristics and
processes of the earth and astrobodies; the origin,
distribution, development, and utilization of earth
materials and the land as a whole, and the interaction
between the solid earth and the hydrosphere and
atmosphere.

The study of the rocks and similar substances that

make up the earths surface, especially in order to
understand its structure, origin etc.
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Geology What is it?

GEOMORPHOLOGY
The science which studies the nature and
history of landforms and processes;
weathering, erosion and deposition which
created them.

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EARTH SCIENTISTS
Investigate, forecast and mitigate natural
hazards (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
weather hazards, sea-level changes, floods,
landslides, environmental degradation)
Find and design strategies for extracting
resources from the Earth (water, petroleum,
natural gas, metal ores, industrial minerals)
Do basic research on Earth system processes
and the Earths history
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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Observations are made about some phenomenon
Hypotheses are untested explanations of those
observations. Most scientists form multiple
working hypotheses.

Hypotheses are tested, usually by making predictions

based on them and then making new observations about
the predicted outcome
Hypotheses that withstand numerous tests become
theories. Hypotheses that do not withstand study are
abandoned.

A theory is an explanation of a phenomenon that

has been tested rigorously, and that holds true
after competing hypotheses have been eliminated.
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The nebular
hypothesis
1) Initial accretion of the
planet Earth: Big Bang
Theory (14 billion years
ago)
The solar nebula (4.6
billion years ago) (gas)
contracted, cooled and
condensed into dust sized
particles that accreted
(stuck together as the
result of collisions) into
protoplanets (asteroid
sized bodies) and then
larger planets. Solar
Nebula: 99.6% (Sun); 0.4%
(Earth + 7 planets +
asteroids)
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Could you imagine, how small is our Earth

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 Earth is the 3rd planet from the Sun at a

distance of about 150 mil. km.
It takes 365.256 days for the Earth to travel
around the Sun and 23.9345 hours for the
Earth rotate a complete revolution.
It has a diameter of 12,756 km (7,973
miles), only a few hundred km larger than
that of Venus.
Our atmosphere is composed of 78%,
nitrogen, 21% oxygen & 1% other.
Earth is the only planet in the solar system
known to harbor life.
Our planet's rapid spin and molten nickeliron core give rise to an extensive magnetic
field, which, along with the atmosphere,
shields us from nearly all of the harmful
radiation coming from the Sun and other
stars.
Earth's atmosphere protects us from
meteors (100-1000 tons daily), most of
which burn up before they can strike the
Earth surface.

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The EARTH

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EARTH DIMENSION
Radius (Av.) 6,371 km
Density 5.517 g/cm3
Weight 5.98 x 1024kg
Continental area (29.02%) 148x106 km2
Oceanic area (70.98%) 362x106 km2
Average continent high 823 m
Average ocean depth 3,800 m
Mt. Everest 8,848 m
Mariana Trench 11,033 m
Mean surface temperature 15oC
Atmospheric composition N2 (78%); O2 (21);
Others (1%)
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Solid iron
Liquid iron

Cross section through the earth. Expanded section shows the

relationship between the two types of crust; the lithosphere and
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the asthenosphere, and the mantle. The crust ranges from 5 to 50
kilometers thick.

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Melting and differentiation of the Earth or evolution

1) Following accretion the Earth
was homogeneous (?)

2) Earths interior
melted. Dense molten
iron moved inward, and
lighter elements moved
toward the surface. The
core, mantle and crust
form.
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3) Origin of the Atmosphere & Hydrosphere

Gases escape
from Earths
molten interior
through volcanic
activity.
We observe this
happening in the
present.

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Solid Earth
Crust (5-70 km):
Most abundant
elements are
silicon (Si) and
oxygen (O)
Mantle (2900 km):
Most abundant
elements are
magnesium (Mg),
oxygen (O) and
silicon (Si)
Core:
Composed
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Look at the outer

layers of the solid
Earth:
Upper mantle &
crust = lithosphere

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Three mechanical layers of the crust and mantle:

Lithosphere (crust and upper mantle, about 100 km thick) is
strong and brittle
Asthenosphere (mantle, 100-660 km) is plastic and deformable
it contains a small amount of molten rock or magma.
Mesosphere (>660 km) is strong, but not brittle
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EARTHS INTERIOR

Seismic discontinuities
aid in distinguishing
divisions of the Earth
layers into:
inner core,
outer core,
D (Gutenberg)
lower mantle,
transition region,
upper mantle,
Mohorovicic, and
crust (oceanic &
continental).
Lateral discontinuities
also have been
distinguished and mapped
through seismic
tomography.

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http://www.solarviews.com/eng/earthint.htm

EARTHS INTERIOR
In profile section, the Earth consists of 7
layers

Allah is He Who created seven heavens, and of the earth the like of them; the
decree continues to descend among them, that you may know that Allah has power
over all things and that Allah indeed encompasses all things in (His) knowledge. .
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At-Thalaq, (65:12)

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Structure of Earth

What is MOHO???
mohorovicic discontinuity boundary between earth crust and
the mantle

What is D layer???

Gutenberg discontinuity boundary between core and mantle

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Earth interior
TWO TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

P waves (anything) - COMPRESSIONAL WAVES - VOLUME

CHANGES MATERIAL COMPRESSED OR EXPANDED IN
DIRECTION WAVE PROPAGATES
P WAVES TRAVEL FASTER IN SOLIDTHAN LIQUID

S wave (only solids)- SHEAR WAVES - DISTORTION WITHOUT VOLUME CHANGE

MATERIAL SHEARED IN DIRECTION NORMAL TO WAVE PROPAGATES
P WAVES TRAVEL FASTER (ABOUT 1.7X) THAN S WAVES
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Earths lithospheric plates

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CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Rate of plate movement varies, from 5 to 10cm/year.

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CONCLUSION
The formation of the universe focusing to
our Solar System are originated from the
Big-Bang Theory.
The main components of the Earth are
lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere,
outer core and inner core.

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Next Lecture:
The motion of lithospheric plates and
plate tectonics

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Why is the inner core solid even though it is

hotter than the outer core?
Answer 1:
The inner core is indeed hotter than the outer core.
However, the PRESSURE on the inner core is
greater than the pressure on the outer core and the
melting point of iron, the main constituent of the
core, INCREASES as the pressure goes up. So,
because the pressure effect overrides the
temperature effect, the inner core is solidified.
We also can speculate that the inner core began to
freeze (solidify) about 1 or two billion years ago. the
inner core makes up only 1% of the mass of the
Earth; the outer core makes up about 32% of the
mass of the Earth.
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Answer 2:
The inner core is solid because it is made of very
dense, or heavy, materials - like iron and
nickel.Even though it is very hot, these materials
don't "melt" very easily, so they stay solid.
Answer 3:
It turns out that many materials can be a solid at a
higher temperature if the pressure is also higher.
So, even though it is hotter in the inner core, the
pressure in the core is also higher, and you can
have solid iron-nickel instead of liquid.
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