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Advantageou
s
Disadvantageous
Inferior mechanical strength
Low thermal and dimensional stability
The most widely used chloroflorocarbon (CFC) blowing agents have
been found to cause ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere and
banned by 2010 according to Montreal Protocol.
Foaming Techniques
1- Mechanical Foaming
2- Foaming with Hollow Glass Beads
3- Chemical Foaming
4- Physical Foaming
Foaming agents are substances that form the gaseous phase in the
foams.
For large scale production, the direct utilization of foaming agents is the most
commonly used method.
Two types of foaming agents are often used:
Chemical blowing agents: They are usually reactive species that
produce gases in the foaming process. Blowing agents that produce
gas via chemical reactions include baking powder and isocyanates;
when they react with water; RNCO + H2O RNH2 + CO2
Physical blowing agents: They are substances that gasify under
foaming conditions. Typical physical foaming agents are volatile
chemicals such as chlorofluorocarons (CFC), volatile hydrocarbons
and alcohols, or inert gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
Over the last thirty years, climate change and depletion of the ozone layer have been widely
believed to be the world's largest environmental problems. The two problems have many
similarities. Both involve global risks created by diverse nations, and both seem to be best
handled through international agreements. In addition, both raise serious issues of
intergenerational and international equity. Future generations stand to lose a great deal,
whereas the costs of restrictions would be borne in the first instance by the current generation;
and while wealthy nations are largely responsible for the current situati
n, poorer nations are anticipated to be quite vulnerable in the future. But an extraordinarily
successful agreement, the Montreal Protocol, has served largely to eliminate the production and
use of ozone-depleting chemicals, while the Kyoto Protocol has spurred (encourage) only
modest (small) steps toward stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions. What accounts for the
dramatic difference between the two protocols? Part of the explanation lies in the radically
different self-interested judgments of the United States; part of the explanation lies in the very
different payoff structures of the two agreements. Influenced by the outcome of a purely
domestic cost-benefit analysis involving reductions in ozone-depleting chemicals, the United
States enthusiastically supported the Montreal Protocol. Influenced by the very different
outcome of cost-benefit analyses for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, the United States
aggressively opposed the Kyoto Protocol. An examination of the two protocols suggests that
neither agreement fit the simple structure of a prisoner's dilemma, in which a nation gain from
an enforceable agreement, gains even more if it is the only nation not to comply (obey) while all
others do, and lose most if it, and everyone else, pursue their own national self-interest. For the
United States, at least, compliance with the Montreal Protocol would have been justified even if
no other country had complied; for the United States, and for several other countries,
compliance with the Kyoto Protocol would not have been justified even if all other parties had
complied. An understanding of the judgments that surround the two protocols indicates that
even though moral considerations require the United States to spend a great deal to protect
Polyurethane
The
difference
between
making
polyurethane
and
polyurethane foam is that a gas has to be incorporated in the
final product. To achieve this the isocyanate group is reacted
with water forming an amine and CO2 gas.
Foaming Processes
Foaming Processes
Slabstock foaming:
In this continuous process the raw materials,
polyol, di-isocyanate, water, catalysts (accelerate and control the rate of
the water/di-isocyanate reaction) and other additives are mixed
continuously into an in-line mixer and the mixed reactants, still in liquid
form, are poured into a continuous paper and/or polyethylene mould on
moving conveyor. In the mould, the liquids foam and expand to form a
continuous block of foam. This block is out into sections, stored for at least
a day to cure and cool, and then cut in variety of ways into the shapes
required. The main uses for this foam are mattresses, furnitures,
Extrusion foaming
Continuous extrusion foaming is the most commonly used
technology in the foam industry. Both single- and twin-screw
extruders can be used for plastic foaming. In a typical extrusion
foaming process, the foaming gas is first injected into the barrel
and mixed with the polymer to form a homogenous solution.
When the homogenous polymer/gas mixture passes through a
die, a rapid pressure drop induces phase separation and cell
nucleation. Pressure drop, and especially the pressure drop rate,
is the primary driving force for cell nucleation. An extra shaping
die is used to control the product shape and foam expansion. The
foamed materials continue to expand until the extrudate
temperature is lower than Tg and the foam product is vitrified.
Foaming Processes
Foaming Processes
Foaming Processes
To produce microcellular foams, a new screw designed for better mixing and
a new sealed barrel with gas injectors were used. Highly controlled use of a
gas such as CO2 or nitrogen in its supercritical state (SCF) in the injection
Among the molding parameters studied, shot size has the most
significant effect on cell size, cell density, and tensile strength:
The minimum cell size was achieved at the medium shot
size. Conceivably, the larger the shot size, the slower the cooling
rate, and thus the longer the cooling time promotes more cell
growth. On the other hand, with the smaller shot size, the cells have
more space to grow, which is in favor of larger cell sizes.
When the same shot size is used or the same amount of material is
injection molded, the finer and denser microcells in samples
usually lead to higher impact strength and less reduction in
tensile strength, unless some defects such as coalescence and
open cells occur in the cell formation.
Foaming Processes
Aerogels
Aerogel is a synthetic porous ultralight material derived from a gel,
in which the liquid component of the gel has been replaced with a
gas. Transparent superinsulating silica aerogels exhibit the lowest
thermal conductivity of any solid known. Ultrahigh surface area
carbon aerogels power today's fast-charging supercapacitors.
Aerogels are produced by extracting the
liquid component of a gel through
supercritical drying. This allows the
liquid to be slowly dried off without
causing the solid matrix in the gel to
collapse from capillary action, as would
happen with conventional evaporation.
Valentine Aerogel
Supercritical drying