.

NDT & DT
Destructive Testing
Testing Methods
Specimen as per code
Non Destructive Testing
Testing Methods
Visual Inspection
Specimen Selection Criteria
Acceptance Criteria as per Codes

AN OVERVIEW
The term mechanical testing is used to describe a group of test methods
for establishing or confirming the mechanical properties of a material or a
completed weld. Most of these tests involve sectioning or otherwise destroying
some part of the object being tested and thus they are sometimes called
destructive tests. The tests are generally classified by the property they are
intended to define. Each follows a well-established procedure, which is part of a
published standard, allowing individual test results to be compared to other
results or statistical norms. This section describes the following mechanical tests,
some of which are destructive, that are carried out on welds:
macroscopic & microscopic examinations
bend test
tension test
hardness test
charpy vee notch test
Izod test
crack tip open displacement test
nick break test
chemical test

Bend Test :
The bend test is a popular test method that is found in many welding standards and
specifications throughout the world due to the simplicity of the test method and
equipment required. The history of the bend test dates back to the early years of wrought
iron and steel testing before the advent of modern testing equipment. Bend specimens
are prepared typically from a test plate rather than from an expensive finished product
and are used to evaluate the ductility and soundness of welded joints.
There are two different bend testing methods:
guided bend test
free bend test
Guided Bend Test
The guided bend test is commonly used in welder and procedure qualification tests
to determine the ability of the welder to make sound welds. The test is performed by
bending prepared specimens of a specific dimension (usually specified in the relevant
code) in a special jig. The dimensions of the jig will vary with specimen thickness and
material.

It is important to note that the strain applied to the test specimen

depends on the spacing of the rollers and the radius of the member. The
strain on the outside fiber of the bend specimen can be approximated from
the following formula:
e = 100 t / ( 2R + t )
where
e = strain, %
t = bend test specimen thickness, mm. (in)
R = inside bend radius, mm. (in)
When performing qualification tests the specimen thickness and bend
radius are chosen according to the ductility of the metal being tested.
An elongation in the outside fibre of 20 percent can be easily achieved
on sound mild steel welds. Bend tests will consistently fail if the
specimens contain weld discontinuities that are on are near the surface
of the material.
After
bending,
the
welds
are
examined
for
the
presence
of
discontinuities. Many welding standards and specifications consider that
a bend specimen has failed if on examination of the convex surface after
bending there is a crack or open defect exceeding 3mm (1/8 in.).

There are three types of guided bend tests:

- root bend tests
- face bend tests
- side bend tests
A root bend test puts the weld root in tension while a face bend test does
the same for the weld face. Both types are generally used on material thickness
of 10 mm (3/8 in.) or less. When the material thickness is greater than 10 mm
(3/8 in.) side bend test specimens are usually chosen due to the difficulty in
bending the thicker material. Side bend test specimens are typically 10mm (3/8
in.) thick. This test strains the entire weld cross section, and thus is especially
useful for exposing defects near the mid-thickness that might not contribute to
failure in a face or root bend test.

Bend Test Limitations

The same weakness that tensile tests suffer from also affects bend
tests. Nonuniform properties along the length of the specimen can cause
nonuniform bending. Bend testing is sensitive to the relative strengths
of the weld metal, the heat-affected zone, and the base metal.
Many problems can develop in transverse bend tests such as an
overmatching weld strength may prevent the weld zone from conforming
exactly to the bending die radius, and thus may force the base metal to
deform to a smaller radius. This will not produce the desired elongation
in the weld. Alternatively, with an under matching weld strength, the
specimen may bend in the weld to a radius smaller than the bending die.
In this case failure may result when the weld metal ductility is
exceeded, and not because the weld metal contained a defect.
These problems with weld strength mismatch can be avoided by using
longitudinal bend specimens which have the bend axis perpendicular to the
weld axis. In this case all zones of the welded joint (weld, heat
affected zone, and base metal) are strained equally and simultaneously.
This test is usually used for the evaluation of joints in dissimilar
metals.

Weld discontinuities in longitudinal bend tests that are

oriented parallel to the weld axis such as incomplete fusion,
inadequate joint penetration, or undercut are only moderately
strained and may not cause failure.

TENSION TEST
Tension tests are performed for the following reasons:
- test results are used in selecting materials for engineering applications
- tensile properties are frequently included in the material specifications
to ensure quality
- often tensile properties are measured during the development of new
materials and processes so that different materials and processes can be
compared.
- tensile properties are often used to predict the behavior of a material
under different forms of loading, other than uniaxial tension.
The strength and ductility of metals are generally obtained from a
simple uniaxial tension test in which a machined specimen is subjected
to an increasing load while simultaneous observations of extension are
made. If the loading is continued the specimen will eventually break. A
typical stress-strain curve that is produced from a tension test is shown
in the diagram. (Appendix C Fig 48)

In a welding application, tension tests involve applying a load to the ends of

a standard test specimen and recording the point at which the specimen fails
by permanent shape change (yielding) and by fracture. A number of mechanical
properties can be determined from a tension test, including the following which
are of particular significance in welding:
- yield strength ( the stress at which permanent deformation occurs)
- ultimate strength (the highest stress the material is able to withstand)
- breaking or fracture strength (the stress at which the material fails by
breaking)
- ductility (the percentage of elongation or reduction of area of a defined
segment of the specimen)

Two specific types of tension test specimens are used

extensively in testing welding materials and welded joints.
One of these uses specimens taken from the weld material
only (all weld metal tests), and the other uses specimens
taken across the weld (reduced section tension specimens).
The latter specimens are machined so that the smallest
dimension of width is in the weld area (reduced section
tension test).

All Weld Metal Test

This test is used to determine the tensile properties
of a specimen that consists entirely of weld metal. The
test specimen is oriented parallel to the weld axis, and
is machined entirely from the weld metal. There are two
reasons for performing an all weld metal test:
- to qualify a filler metal or
- determine the properties of the weld metal in a
particular weld ment.
To qualify a filler metal the melting of the base metal
is minimized when making a test weld. This procedure is
described in the various filler metal standards. If the
purpose of the test is to determine weld metal properties
in a particular weld ment, then the welding process and
procedure used in the actual fabrication should be
employed to make the test weld. The following are
typically properties that are measured and reported in an
all weld metal tension test:
- tensile strength - yield strength - elongation
-reduction of area

HARDNESS TESTING
Hardness can be described as the ability of a material to resist permanent or plastic
deformation, and is usually measured by its resistance to indentation by an indenter of a
standard shape and size.
The hardness test is by far one of the most valuable and the most widely used
mechanical test for evaluating the properties of metals as well as certain other materials.
In general, an indenter is pressed into the surface of the metal to be tested under a
specific load for a definite time interval, and a measurement is made of the size or depth
of the indentation.
The main purpose of the hardness test is to determine the suitability of a material, or
the particular treatment to which the material has been subjected to

Hardness testing may be used alone or to

complement other test methods.
This is what makes the hardness method so
popular because of the relationship that exists
between hardness and other properties of the
material.
For instance, both the hardness test and the
tension test measure the resistance of a metal to
plastic flow.
Such correlations are approximate and must be
used with caution when applied to welded joints
or any metal with a heterogeneous structure.

It should be noted that hardness is not a fundamental property of a

material and a hardness value is an arbitrary number. There are no
absolute standards of hardness and it has no quantitative value, except
in terms of a given load applied in a specified manner for a specified
duration and a specified penetrator shape.
Measurements of hardness can provide information about the
metallurgical changes caused by welding. For example, in alloy steels a
high hardness could indicate the presence of untempered martensite in
the weld heat-affected zone, while a low hardness may indicate an overtempered condition. In cold-worked or age-hardened metal, welding may
result in significantly lower heat-affected zone hardness due to
recrystallization or over aging.
Hardness testing is divided into two categories: macrohardness
and microhardness.

The hardness testing methods in use today for

testing metals are:
- Brinell
- Rockwell
- Vickers
- Knoop

CHARPY IMPACT TEST

The Charpy vee-notch impact test is the most common fracture toughness
test used by industry. A notched specimen is broken by a swinging pendulum and
the amount of energy required to break the specimen is recorded in foot-pounds or
joules. This is determined by measuring how far the pendulum swings upwards
after it fractures the specimen. If the specimen is tough, the pendulum will only
swing up a small distance since part of its energy has been absorbed by the
specimen. If the specimen is brittle it will absorb little energy thus allowing the
pendulum to swing up to almost its original height.

Charpy vee-notch impact testing machine

(Ref Appendix C Fig 45)
The amount of energy absorbed can be
read directly off of the dial indicator
that is located on the machine.
The specimen is supported in place
as shown and the pendulum strikes it
from behind the notch.
Charpy vee-notch specimen holder (Ref Appendix C Fig 46)
This puts the notch in tension, causing the specimen to fracture.
The dimensions of the specimen are shown in the next diagram. In some
cases sub size specimens may be used when the material thickness is to
small to accommodate the full size specimens. It is extremely important
that the specimen is machined to the tolerances and finishes specified
(eg ASTM E23 Standard Methods For Notched Bar Impact Testing Of
Metallic Materials).

Charpy vee-notch specimen dimensions

(Refer Appendix C Fig 47)
Metals such as carbon and low alloy steels, exhibit
a change in failure mode with decreasing temperature.
For this reason, it is common to conduct impact tests
over a range of specimen temperatures.
The performance of the material at different
temperatures can be observed and a conclusion made
regarding the temperature below which the material
can no longer be used without a risk of brittle fracture.
The graph shows the relationship between test
specimen temperature and absorbed energy.

Impact energy vs temperature

(Refer Appendix C Fig 48)
The absorbed energy is the most common value
reported, however, the percent shear and the
lateral expansion may also be noted. Metals that
exhibit a high Charpy vee notch value are typically
those that are more resistant to brittle fracture.
It is important to remember that these tests are
comparative only and are no guarantee of ductile
behaviour in actual service.
The fractured ends of a specimen often reveal
the manner in which it fractured. If the specimen
has fractured in a brittle manner with low energy
the faces will have a flat, crystalline and shiny
surface. A tough specimen will exhibit more
deformation and will have a dull and fibrous
surface.

IZOD IMPACT TEST

The Izod test is another form of impact testing.

It also involves the use of a vee notched specimen
and a machine to deliver an impact blow to the
specimen. Testing is generally carried out with the
specimens at room temperature since the time required
to accurately place it in the machine allows its
temperature to increase. This can introduce a
significant error when conducting tests at various
temperatures.
The positioning of the specimen within the testing
machine is critical. Unlike the Charpy specimen, the
Izod specimen is held rigidly in a vice type fixture
with the notched side facing the direction of impact.
The centerline of the notch must be in the plane of
the vice top within .125 mm. Once the specimen is in
place the hammer is released from a preset height and
allowed to strike the specimen thus fracturing it at
the vee notch.

Non-Destructive Testing
Testing Methods
Visual Inspection
Specimen Selection Criteria
Various NDT Info
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Radiographic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Visual Inspection Acceptance Criteria
Acceptance Criteria

1 Testing Methods
There are Numerous Non-Destructive tests used to evaluate the base metal to be
joined as well as completed welds. However these all NDT shares several
common elements, these essential elements are summarized below:
A Source of Probing energy or Medium
A Discontinuity must cause change or alteration of probing energy
A means of detecting this change
A means of indicating this change
A means of observing or recording this indication so that an interpretation can
made.
Over the years Numerous Non-Destructive Testing Methods have been developed,
each one has associated with its various advantage & Limitations.
Followings are the Noted NDT Methods
Visual Testing (VT)
Penetrant Test (PT)
Magnetic Particle Test (MT)
Radiographic Test (RT)
Ultrasonic Test (UT)
Eddy Current Test (ET)

Visual Inspection
In any effective Quality control program, visual inspection provides the basic element
for evaluation of the structure or components being fabricated. In order to gain some
assurance as to the suitability of the welding for its intended service, code & standard
will always stipulate the performance of visual inspection as the minimum level of
acceptance/rejection evaluation.
It has been proven fact in numerous situations that an effective program of
visual inspection will results in discovery of vast majority of those defects which
will be found later using some other expensive NDT Methods.
Its important to realize, however, this is possible only when the visual inspection is
accomplished before, during & after welding, by qualified welding inspector. Simply
looking at the finished weld without the benefit of seeing those preceding fabrication
steps can only provide a limited assurance of weld suitability.
It has been considered that the only way in which the visual inspection can be
considered to effectively evaluate the quality of welds is to apply that inspection at every
step of the fabrication process

Sample Welding inspection Checklist:

Before Welding
Review applicable documents
Check welding procedure
Check individual welder qualification
Establish Hold points
Develop inspection plan
Develop system for identification of rejects
Check condition of welding equipment
Check quality & condition weld filler material
Check weld preparation
Check joint setups
Check adequacy of alignment devices
Check weld joint cleanliness
Check preheat if required

During Welding
Check welding variable in compliance with welding procedure
Check quality of individual weld passes
Check inter pass cleaning
Check inter pass temperature
Check placement & sequencing of individual weld passes
Check backgouged surfaces
Monitor in-process NDT if required
After Welding
Check finished weld appearance
Check weld size
Check weld length
Check dimensional accuracy of weldments
Monitor additional NDT if required
Monitor PWHT if required
Prepare Inspection Reports

Specimen Selection Criteria

All longitudinal and circumferential butt weld seams of drums/shells under internal
pressure shall be radio graphically examined over their entire length when weld joint
factor considered for design is 1.
If the weld joint factor considered for design is less than 0.85, spot radiography of
10% length per weld per welder shall be done.
When joint factor is less than 0.7 no radiography is required.

Penetrant Testing (PT)

Liquid penetration inspection is a method that is used to reveal surface breaking flaws
by bleed-out of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw. The technique is based on the
ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface breaking flaw by capillary action. After a
period of time called the "dwell," excess surface Penetrant is removed and a developer
applied.
(Ref Appendix C fig 10)
This acts as a "blotter." It draws the Penetrant from the flaw to reveal its presence.
Colored (contrast) penetrates require good white light while fluorescent penetrates need to
be used in darkened conditions with an ultraviolet "black light".
Some Examples:
Liquid Penetrant Tested Sample (Ref Appendix C fig 8)
Detection of Defect using Black-light (Ref Appendix C fig 9)

Table for Dwell time

Magnetic Particle Testing(MT)

Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive testing method used for defect detection. MPI
is a fast and relatively easy to apply and part surface preparation is not as critical as it is for
some other NDT methods. These characteristics make MPI one of the most widely utilized
nondestructive testing methods.

MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect flaws
in components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the component being
inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their
alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow
the inspection to be effective.
The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms such as castings, forgings, and
weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a
component's fitness-for-use. Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle inspection are
the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries.
Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection may be used to test items
such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.

Ultrasonic Testing Methods(UT)

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional
measurements, material characterization, and more. To illustrate the general inspection
principle, a typical pulse/echo inspection configuration as illustrated below will be used.

A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the

pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that
can produce high voltage electrical pulse. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high
frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials
in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of
the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is
transformed into electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. Signal travel
time can be directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From the signal,
information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be
gained.

Beam spread occurs because the vibrating particle of the material (through which
the wave is traveling) do not always transfer all of their energy in the direction of wave
propagation. Recall that waves propagate through that transfer of energy from one
particle to another in the medium. If the particles are not directly aligned in the direction
of wave propagation, some of the energy will get transferred off at an angle. (Picture
what happens when one ball hits another second ball slightly off center). In the near field
constructive and destructive wave interference fill the sound field with fluctuation. At the
start of the far field, however, the beam strength is always greatest at the center of the
beam and diminishes as it spreads outward.
Beam spread is largely determined by the frequency and diameter of the
transducer. Beam spread is greater when using a low frequency transducer than when
using a high frequency transducer. As the diameter of the transducer increases the
beam spread will be reduced.
Beam angle is an important consideration in transducer selection for a couple of
reasons. First, beam spread lowers the amplitude of reflections since sound fields are
less concentrated and, therefore, weaker. Second, beam spread may result in more
difficult to interpret signals due to reflections from the lateral sides of the test object or
other features outside of the inspection area. Characterization of the sound field
generated by a transducer is a prerequisite to understanding observed signals.

SR.NO.

DESCRIPTION

SHELL/DRUM

L SEAMS

(Ref. UW-11/Table UW-12 & UCS-57)

RT

100%

UT

MT

PT

C SEAMS

(Ref. UW-11/Table UW-12 & UCS-57)

RT

100%

UT

MT

PT

Nozzle But Welds

(Ref. UW-11(4)/Table UW-12 & UCS-57)

RT

100%

TUBES/ PIPES/
STAND PIPES/
HEADERS

(Ref. UW-11(a)(2))
>NPS 10or>29 mm
(Wall Thk.)

RT

100%

UT

MT

PT

II

III

Notes :

ASME SECT. VIII DIV. I

Appendix C
Non-Destructive Testing
DP Test

Fig 8

Fig 9

DP Test Result

Fig 10

Non-Destructive Testing
MT Test
Fig 14

MT Yoke

Test Set-up

Magnetic Field
Strength Checkup

Fig 16

Non-Destructive
Testing
Fig 11
Fig 12
Fig 13

MT With Powder

Crack Detection
thru MPI
Fig 15

Crack Detection
thru MPI

MT Test Fluorescent
Fig 17
Fig 18

Fig 19

Fig 20

Non-Destructive Testing
Radiography Films
Fig 21 Cold Lap

Fig 23 Cluster Porosity

Fig 25 Lack of
Penetration

Fig 27 Suck
Back

Fig 29 External
Undercut

Fig 22 Porosity

Fig 24 Slag Inclusion

Fig 26 Incomplete
Fusion

Fig 28 Internal
Undercut

Fig 30 Offset or
Mismatch

l
Fig 31 underfil

Fig 32 Over Fill

Fig 34 Tungsten Inclusion

Fig 33 Crack

Fig 35 Oxide Inclusion

Ultrasonic Probe Cross-Section

Destructive Testing

Fig 36

Fig 37

Bend test jig dimensions

Successful bend test

Fig 39

Unsuccessful bend test

Fig 40

All weld metal test specimen

weld tension test

Fig 42

tension test
specimen
Fig 40

Transverse weld

Fig 41

Longitudinal

Hardness scan - fillet welds

Hardness scan - butt weld

Fig 43
Fig 44

Charpy vee-notch impact testing machine

Fig 45

Charpy vee-notch specimen holder

Fig 46

Charpy vee-notch specimen dimensions

Fig 47

Impact energy vs temperature

Fig 48

Fractured charpy vee-notch specimen

Fig 49

Izod specimen set up

Fig 50
Izod impact specimen dimensions

Fig 51