Unit - 1 Basic Concepts of Measurements

UNIT 1
BASIC CONCEPTS OF
MEASUREMENTS
METROLOGY &
MEASUREMENTS/
FLORENCE/ 2016-2017/
Syllabus
General
concept
Generalized
measurement system-Units and standardsmeasuring
instruments-
sensitivity,
readability, range of accuracy, precisionstatic and dynamic response repeatabilitysystematic and random errors-correction,
calibration, interchangeability
METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/
FLORENCE/ 2016-2017/ UNIT 1
Measurement
Procedure in which an unknown quantity is
compared to a known standard, using an
accepted and consistent system of units
The measurement may involve a simple
linear rule to scale the length of a part or it
may require a sophisticated measurement
of force versus deflection during a tension
test
Measurement provides a numerical value
of the quantity of interest, within certain
limits of accuracy and precision
METROLOGY &
MEASUREMENTS/ FLORENCE/
2016-2017/ UNIT 1
Key Words in Metrology

CALIBRATION Comparison
METROLOGY Science of Measurement
TRACEABILITY
Unbroken
Chain
of
Comparisons
UNCERTAINTITY Error in Measurement
ACCREDITATION Third Party Ascertain
CALIBRATION INTERVAL Equipment
Remains Reliable
Introduction to Metrology

Need of Measurement
Establish standard
Interchange ability
Customer Satisfaction
Validate the design
Physical parameter into meaningful
number
True dimension
Evaluate the Performance
Methods of Measurement
Direct method
Indirect method
Comparative method
Coincidence method
Contact method
Deflection method
Complementary method
Direct method
Measurements are directly obtained
Ex: Vernier Caliper, Scales

Indirect method
Obtained by measuring other
quantities
Ex : Weight = Length x Breadth x
Height x Density

Comparative Method
Its compared with other known value
Ex: Comparators

10
Coincidence method
Measurements coincide with certain
lines and signals
Fundamental method
Measuring a quantity directly in
related with the definition of that
quantity
Contact method
Sensor/Measuring tip touch the
surface area
11
Complementary method
The value of quantity to be measured
is combined with known value of the
same quantity
Ex:Volume determination by liquid
displacement

12
Deflection method
The value to be measured is directly
indicated by a deflection of pointer
Ex: Pressure Measurement

13
GENERALIZED MEASURING
SYSTEM
14
Common elements of
system
Primary sensing element

Variable conversion element
Variable manipulation element
Data transmission element
Data processing element
Data presentation element

15
Primary sensing
element
Variable conversion
element
Variable manipulation
element
Temperature
Data transmission
element
Observer
Data presentation
element
Data processing
element
16
Units and standards

17
SI: fundamental Units

Physical Quantity
Unit Name
Symbol
length
meter
mass
kilogram
kg
time
second
electric current
ampere
temperature
Kelvin
amount of substance
mole
mol
luminous intensity
candela
cd

18
SI: Derived Units

Physical Quantity
Unit Name
Symbol
area
square meter
m2
volume
cubic meter
m3
speed
meter per
second
m/s
acceleration
meter per
second squared
m/s2
weight, force
newton
pressure
pascal
Pa
joule
energy, work

19
Supplementary units
Physical
Quantity
Unit Name
Symbol
Plane
angle
Radian
rad
Solid
angle
Steradian
sr

20
Standards
International standards
Primary standards
Secondary standards
Working standards
21
International
International Organization of Legal Metrology, Paris
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at
Sevres, France
India
National Physical Laboratory
Dr. K.S. Krishnan Marg
New Delhi - 110012
India
Phone:91-11-45609212
Fax:91-11-45609310
Email:root@nplindia.orgorroot@nplindia.ernet.in

22
Measuring Instruments
Deflection and null type instruments

Analog and digital instruments
Active and passive instruments
Automatic and manually operated
instruments
Contacting and non contacting
instruments
Absolute and secondary instruments
Intelligent instruments.
23
DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE

Physical effect generated by the
measuring quantity
Equivalent opposing effect to nullify the
physical effect caused by the quantity

24
ANALOG AND DIGITAL

INSTRUMENTS
Physical variables of interest in the
form of continuous or stepless
variations
Physical variables are represented by
digital quantities

25
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are those that require
some source of auxiliary power
The energy requirements of the
instruments are met entirely from the
input signal

26
Automatic and manually

operated
Manually operated requires the

service of human operator
Automated doesn't requires human
operator

27
Contacting And Non Contacting

Instruments
A contacting with measuring medium
Measure the desired input even
though they are not in close contact
with the measuring medium

28
Absolute and Secondary

Instruments
These instruments give the value of the
electrical quantity in terms of absolute
quantities
Deflection of the instruments can read
directly

29
Intelligent instruments
Microprocessors are incorporated
with measuring instruments

30
Characteristics of Measuring
Instrument
Sensitivity
Readability
Range of accuracy
Precision
31
Definition
Sensitivity- Sensitivity is defined as the ratio
of
the
magnitude
of
response
(output
signal) to the magnitude of the quantity

being measured (input signal)
Readability- Readability is defined as the
closeness with which the scale of the analog

instrument can be read
32
Definition
Range
of
measuring
accuracysystem
is
Accuracy
defined
of
as
a
the
closeness of the instrument output to the

true value of the measured quantity
Precision- Precision is defined as the ability
of the instrument to reproduce a certain

set of readings within a given accuracy
33
Sensitivity
If the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the
sensitivity of the instrument is the slope of
the calibration curve.
If the calibration curve is not linear as shown,
then the sensitivity varies with the input.

34
Sensitivity
This is the relationship between a change in the
output reading for a given change of the input.
(This relationship may be linear or non-linear.)
Sensitivity is often known as scale factor or
instrument magnification and an instrument with a
large sensitivity (scale factor) will indicate a large
movement of the indicator for a small input
change.
35
Output, Vo (V)
Force, F
Slope = 5 V/kN
Output, Vo
Load Cell
Input, Fi (kN)
Block Diagram:
Input, F (kN)
Output, Vo (V)
K
Sensitivity, K = 5 V/kN
36
Example
(1) A 0.01 /A meter with 5 A fsd,
Rm = /A x A
= 0.01 x 5 = 0.05
Vmax across the Meter will be
= 5 A x 0.05
= 0.25 V for fsd.
(2) A 0.1 /A meter with 5 A fsd,will
drop 2.5 V (i.e., it is 10 times less
sensitive), which may bias the results
37
Readability
Readability
is defined as the ease with which
readings may be taken with an instrument.

Readability difficulties may often occur due to
parallax errors when an observer is noting the
position of a pointer on a calibrated scale
38
Readability
What is the value ?
What is the value ?
What is the value ?

39
Accuracy
Accuracy = the extent to which a
measured value agrees with a true
value
The
difference
between
the
measured value & the true value is
known as Error of measurement
Accuracy is the quality of conformity

40
Example: Accuracy
Who is more accurate when measuring a
book that has a true length of 17.0 cm?
A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
B ::
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

41
Precision
The precision of a measurement depends on
the instrument used to measure it.
For example, how long is this block?

42
How big is the beetle?

Measure between the head
and the tail!
Between 1.5 and 1.6 in
Measured length: 1.54 in
The 1 and 5 are known with
certainty
The last digit (4) is estimated
between the two nearest fine
division marks.

43
Example: Precision
Who is more precise when measuring the
same 17.0 cm book?
A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
B ::
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

44
Accuracy vs. Precision

High Accuracy
High Precision
High Precision
Low Accuracy

45
The person hit the bull'seye?

Three
targets with
three
arrows each
to shoot.
How do
they
compare?
Both
accurate
and
precise
Precise
but not
accurate
Neither
accurate
nor
precise
Can you define accuracy vs. precision?

46
Uncertainty
The word uncertainty casts a doubt
about the exactness of the
measurement results
True value = Estimated value +
Uncertainty
47
Why Is There Uncertainty?

Measurements are performed with instruments,
and no instrument can read to an infinite number of
decimal places
Which of the instruments below has the greatest
uncertainty in measurement?

48
Reading a Meterstick
. l2. . . . I . . . . I3 . . . .I . . . . I4. .
First digit (known)
= 2
Second digit (known)
2.?? cm
= 0.7
Third digit (estimated) between

cm
Length reported
or
cm
2.7? cm
0.05- 0.08
2.77 cm
2.76 cm
or 2.78 cm

49
Known + Estimated Digits

In 2.77 cm
Known digits 2 and 7 are 100% certain
The third digit 7 is estimated (uncertain)
In the reported length, all three digits
(2.77 cm) are significant including the
estimated one
50
Performance of Instruments
All instrumentation systems are
characterized
by
the
system
characteristics or system response
There are two basic characteristics of
Measuring instruments, they are
Static character
Dynamic character

51
Static Characteristics
The instruments, which are used to
measure the quantities which are
slowly varying with time or mostly
constant, i.e., do not vary with time,
is calledstatic characteristics.
52
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
INSTRUMENTS
Accuracy
Dead zone
Precision
Backlash
Sensitivity
True value
Resolution
Hysteresis
Threshold
Linearity
Drift
Range or Span
Error
Bias
Repeatability
Tolerance
Reproducibility
Stability
53
Resolution
This is defined as the smallest input increment
change that gives some small but definite
numerical change in the output.

54
Threshold
This minimum value of input below which no
output can be appeared is known as threshold
of the instrument.
Output
input
55
Drift
Drift or Zero drift is variation in the output of
an instrument which is not caused by any
change in the input; it is commonly caused by
internal temperature changes and component
instability.
Sensitivity drift defines the amount by which
instruments sensitivity varies as ambient
conditions change.
56
Output
Output
sensitivity drift
zero
drift
input
Output
input
sensitivity drift
zero
drift
FLORENCE/ 2016-2017/ UNIT input
1
57
Error The deviation of the true value from the

desired value is called Error
Repeatability It is the closeness value of same
output for same input under same operating
condition
Reproducibility - It is the closeness value of same
output for same input under same operating
condition over a period of time

58
Range
The Range is the total range of
values which an instrument is
capable of measuring.

59
Hysteresis
This is the algebraic difference between the average
errors at corresponding points of measurement
when approached from opposite directions, i.e.
increasing as opposed to decreasing values of the
input.
Measured
Value
Ideal
Actual/ Input
Value

Hysteresis is
caused by
energy
storage/
dissipation in
the system.
60
Zero stability
The ability of the instrument to return to
zero reading after the measured has returned to
zero

61
Dead band
This is the range of different input values over
which there is no change in output value.

62
Linearity-
The ability to reproduce the input

characteristics symmetrically and linearly

63
Backlash Lost motion or free play of

mechanical elements are known as
backlash
True value The errorless value of
measured variable is known as true value
Bias The Constant Error
Tolerance- Maximum Allowable error in
Measurement
64
Dynamic Characteristics
The
set
of
criteria
defined
for
the
instruments, which are changes rapidly with

time, is called dynamic characteristics.

65
Dynamic Characteristics
Steady state periodic
Transient
Speed of response
Measuring lag
Fidelity
Dynamic error

66
Steady state periodic Magnitude has a

definite repeating time cycle
Transient Magnitude whose output does
not have definite repeating time cycle
Speed of response- System responds to
changes in the measured quantity

67
Measuring lag
Retardation type :Begins immediately after
the change in measured quantity
Time delay lag : Begins after a dead time
after the application of the input
Fidelity- The degree to which a

measurement system indicates changes
in the measured quantity without error
Dynamic error- Difference between the
true value of the quantity changing with
time & the value indicated by the
measurement system
68
Errors in Instruments
Error = True value Measured value
or
Error = Measured value - True value

69
Types of Errors
Error of Measurement
Instrumental error
Error of observation
Based on nature of errors
Based on control
70
Error of Measurement
Systematic error -Predictable way in
accordance due to conditions change

Random error - Unpredictable manner
Parasitic error - Incorrect execution of
measurement

71
Instrumental error
Error of a physical measure
Error of a measuring mechanism
Error of indication of a measuring instrument
Error due to temperature
Error due to friction
Error due to inertia
72
Error of observation
Reading error
Parallax error
Interpolation error

73
Nature of Errors
Systematic error
Random error

74
Based on control
Controllable errors
Calibration errors
Environmental (Ambient /Atmospheric
Condition) Errors
Stylus pressure errors
Avoidable errors
Non - Controllable errors

75
Correction
Correction is defined as a value
which is added algebraically to the
uncorrected result of the
measurement to compensate to an
assumed systematic error.
Ex : Vernier Caliper, Micrometer

76
Calibration
Calibration is the process of
determining and adjusting an
instruments accuracy to make sure
its accuracy is with in manufacturing
specifications.

77
Importance of Calibration
Assurance of accurate of measurements
Ability to trace measurements to
International standards
International acceptance of test/calibration
reports
Correct diagnosis of illness (medical reports)
Consumer protection (legal metrology)
Meeting the requirements of ISO 9000 and
17025
78
Interchangeability
A part which can be substituted for
the component manufactured to the
small shape and dimensions is known
a interchangeable part.
The operation of substituting the part
for similar manufactured components
of the shape and dimensions is
known as interchangeability.
79
HIERARCHY OF
MEASUREMENTS

80

81
Compiled by
Florence.T
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rathinam Technical Campus
82

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UNIT 1

measurement system-Units and standardsmeasuring

Key Words in Metrology

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

Primary sensing element

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

Units and standards

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

SI: fundamental Units

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

SI: Derived Units

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

Deflection and null type instruments

DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

ANALOG AND DIGITAL

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

Automatic and manually

Manually operated requires the

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

Contacting And Non Contacting

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

Absolute and Secondary

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

signal) to the magnitude of the quantity

closeness with which the scale of the analog

closeness of the instrument output to the

of the instrument to reproduce a certain

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

is defined as the ease with which

readings may be taken with an instrument.

What is the value ?

What is the value ?

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

How big is the beetle?

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

Accuracy vs. Precision

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

The person hit the bull'seye?

Can you define accuracy vs. precision?

Why Is There Uncertainty?

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

Second digit (known)

Third digit (estimated) between

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

Known + Estimated Digits

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/

Error The deviation of the true value from the

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS/