Introduction to Wind Energy

Aerodynamic theory
Michiel Zaaijer

Overview
Momentum theory
Blade-element theory

Aerofoil aerodynamics
Forces on a blade element

Blade-element momentum theory (BEM)

Momentum theory: description of the

flow

Mass, momentum and energy of

undisturbed wind
U
In time t a volume

U t A

U t
A

flows through area A

Mass per second through A:
mass flow:
m UA
Leading to:
momentum flow:mU U 2 A
kin. energy flow: mU 2 U 3 A
4

Effect of a rotor on the wind

A rotor with a frontal area A

A
T

exerts thrust T on air flow

extracts power P from flow
5

Wake expansion due to a force on

the wind
Represent the rotor by an actuator disc A
that exerts thrust T on air flow
and extracts power P from flow

Ain

m UA
min mout
U e U (due to force T)

Aout

Ue

Aout Ain
6

Expanding stream tubes / stream

lines

The global flow pattern for an actuator disc: expanding stream line
(a rotor will give deviations in the pattern, due to rotation and finite number of blades)

Visualisation of stream line through

a rotor
rotor
axis

rotor
blade

smoke pattern in wind tunnel

8

What happens to the flow through

an actuator disc

velocity

pressure

Actuator disc

pressure jump

p T A

p0

pe = p0

Ur

Ue
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Momentum theory: Momentum and

energy balance

10

Flow properties
T

P
Velocity

Mass flow

Ue

Ur

Momentum flow m U

m Ue

Energy flow m U2

m Ue2

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Newtons law, conservation of energy

and work
T

P
Change in momentum flowT = m (U Ue)
Change in energy flow P = m (U2 Ue2)
Work on flow

Newton
Conservation

= m (U Ue)(U + Ue)
P = T Ur = m (U Ue) Ur Conservation

m (U Ue) Ur = m (U Ue) (U + Ue) Ur = (U + Ue)

12

The induction factor a

Velocity at rotor
disc is the
average:

Half of the speed

loss before and
P
2U = (UUe)
half after the rotor
U Ur = (U + Ue) = U-U Ue = U-2U
Velocity

a U U r U U U
The induction factor a is defined as:
Ur U 1 a
Substitution gives for the velocities:

U e U 1 2a

Note: for a > 0.5 momentum theory no longer valid (Ue<

0)
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Expressing mass, thrust and power

in terms of induction factor a
a U U r U U Ue
Ur U 1 a
U U e U 2a
Mass flow

m = Ur A

Thrust

T = m (U Ue)

Power

P = m (U Ue) Ur

Power and thrust are made

dimensionless by
introducing:2

cT T U A
cP P U 3 A

2U U

UA 1 a
U 2 A 4a 1 a
2
3
U A 4a 1 a
so expressed in a:

cT 4a 1 a

cP 4 a 1 a

14

Optimum in energy conversion - cP

Normalised mass flow

1 a

Maximum cP = ?

Normalised
energy
converted per
unit
4a of
1 mass
a

flow

cP 4 a 1 a 2
a=?

Induction factor a
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Optimum in energy conversion - cP

dcP
2
0 , cP 4 a 1 a
cP is maximum when
da
dcP
2
4 1 a 4a 2 1 a 4 1 4a 3a 2 0
da

With solution a 1 3 ,cP 16 27 0.59

This optimal/maximal efficiency is called the Betz limit

16

Ackere
t

Prandtl

Betz

Seifert

In the Aerodynamics Laboratory at Gttingen University

(Germany)
17

Betz next to the balance of the open jet wind tunnel in Gttingen
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Extreme and optimal induction

Ur=max.
T=0
P=TUr=
0

The Betz optimum

Ur=2/3
U

Ur=0
T=max. 2
P=TUr=0

1/3U

U
Ur=2/3 U

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Blade-element theory
Aerofoil aerodynamics

20

Airfoil aerodynamics
An aerofoil is the cross section
of an infinitely long straight
wing (infinite span) with chord
length c
c

This is a so-called twodimensional flow situation

(characterised by the flow in the
plane through the cross-section)
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Aerofoil aerodynamics
p1 ,V1

streamline

p0 ,V0

stagnation point ( V = 0 )

p0 V0 2 p1 V12
Bernoullis principle:
(only valid where theres no friction, so not close to the
aerofoil and not in the wake behind the aerofoil)
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Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

23

Lift and drag force on an aerofoil

Lift

Pressure force

V1
V0

Viscous force

Drag

By definition: lift (L) perpendicular to V and drag (D) parallel to V

For the flow over the aerofoil upper surface:
gives V1 which, according to Bernoulli, makes p1 , giving L
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Lift curve
maximum lift
start of separation
at trailing edge

lin
ea
r

re
la

tio
n

cl

zero lift

Stall region

L
Definition of cl : cl
V 2 c l
l= length of blade
angle of attack,
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Phenomena that determine lift curve

Attached flow
(linear part of curve)

Leading edge
separation
(stall region)

Stall video on YouTube

(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WFcW5-1NP60)
26

LE-Separation
From:
Van Dyke,
An Album of
fluid motion

Aluminium
powder
in water

27

Aerofoil model in the force balance of the Delft

28
University Low-Turbulence wind Tunnel (LTT)
28

Measured aerofoil characteristics

Lift coefficient
L
cl
V 2lc

D
cd
V 2lc

Drag coefficient
0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
-20

-15

-10

-5

10

15

29

20

25
alpha

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Blade-element theory
Blade elements

30

Blade elements: rotor perspective

The blade elements of the blades in the disc
c

Blade

Actuator disc (rotor area)

Frontal view

dr

Blade element
R

31

Blade elements: blade perspective

Divide the blade into elements (sections)
radial distance r
chord c

chord c

36 %

dr radial distance r

dr

18 %

32

Blade-element theory
Wind/flow conditions at a blade element

33

Ribbons on the blades wind only

Wind direction

(No rotation)

34

Ribbons on the blades rotation

only

(No wind)

Rotation
direction

35

Ribbons on the blades in

operation: wind and rotation

Wind direction

Rotation
direction

36

Incoming wind direction

Wind
Resulting
wind/flow comes
at (small) angle
with the rotor
plane

Rotation

37

Ribbons on the blade: animated

38

Plane of rotation

Wind

39

Plane of rotation

Wind

40

Wind

Plane of rotation

Vres

U(1-a)
41

The velocity triangle

Wind

Plane of rotation

Vres

U(1-a)
42

The velocity triangle

r Plane of rotation
U(1-a)
Vres

43

Tip speed ratio: making rotational

speed dimensionless
R

Definition of tip speed ratio:

U
2 U 2
If
then 2 1and the triangles are of equal shape
1 U1
1r
U1(1-a)

2r
U2(1-a)
Vres

For example:
U1 = 10 m/s
U2 = 6 m/s
2 = 0.61 keeps constant
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Identification of angles

Plane of rotation

U(1-a)

ne
Chord li

= angle of inflow
Vres

= angle of attack
= section pitch angle

section pitch angle = blade pitch angle + section twist ang

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Blade-element theory
Forces on a blade element

46

From velocity triangle to forces

L

Plane of rotation

U(1-a)

R= resultant
r ror total
r force:

R LD

ne
Chord li

= angle of inflow
Vres

= angle of attack
= section pitch angle
L = lift Vres
D = drag // Vres
47

Force decomposition
R
Fn

Plane of rotation Ft

U(1-a)

ne
Chord li

Fn = Normal force
Vres

Ft = tangential force

48

Looking at it in 3D

U(1a)
Wind felt at blade =
wind at rotor disc +
wind from rotation

Force on blade =
thrust (out of plane) +
torque (in plane)

r
49

Computation of forces (1)

L

Fn

Plane of rotation

U(1-a)

Ft

ne
Chord li

Vres

Fn L cos D
sin
Ft L sin D cos
50

Computation of forces (2)

L

From definition of cl :

L cl V 2 c l
Plane of rotation

U(1-a)

dr

ne
Chord li

Vres

Per blade element with length dr :

dL cl Vres 2c dr
dD cd Vres 2c dr
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Computation of forces (3)

Procedure to compute forces per blade element dr:
Assume induction factor a is given
Determine from:
tan U 1 a r

Determine from:
Determine dL and dD from:
dL cl Vres 2 c dr
(cl and cd from graph or table
2
dD

V
d
res c dr
as function of )
Determine normal and tangential force from:

dFn dL cos dD
sin
dFt dL sin dD cos

52

Importance of ratio between L and D

The mechanical energy in the drive train is proportional to dFt

dFt dL sin dD cos

dL cl Vres c dr, dD cd Vres c dr

dFt Vres 2 c cl sin cd cos dr

2

dFt Vres

cos
c cl sin
dr
cl cd

The negative term that reduces mechanical energy

gets smaller when cl cd gets bigger
53

Ideal (design) angle of attack

L/D = maximum (lift is good, drag is bad)
1.6

1.6

cl

cl design

1.2

0.8

(cl /cd)max

cl
1.2

0.8

0.4

0.4

0.0

0.0

-0.4

-0.4

-0.8
0.000

0.015

Stalled flow

0.030

cd

0.045

-0.8
-10.0

Design angle of
attack (6 in this
example)
0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

alpha ( )
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Blade-element theory
Variations along radial positions

55

Velocity caused by rotation

Velocities r
are
proportional to
r

56

An outboard blade element

Section 1

57

Section 1: velocities and angles

1, typically 7 to 9
r1 U(1-a)
1 small
r1

Plane of rotation
1

U(1-a)

ne
Chord li

Vres,1

This is the ideal angle of attack

58

An inboard blade element

Section 2

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Section 2: velocities and angles

Same U(1-a), but r2 smaller r1:
r2 smaller than r1

bigger than

Section 2 chord line

with (ideal) angle of
attack

r2

U(1-a)

Vres

Not ideal
angle

When = , this results in a higher angle of attack >

which is not the ideal angle (assuming the same aerofoil
properties)
Therefore,
increases when going toward the blade root
60

Going from tip

(outboard) to root
(inboard)

and U(1-a) constant

r variable
r

U(1-a)
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Going from tip

(outboard) to root
(inboard)

Vres
U1
62

Going from tip

(outboard) to root
(inboard)

U2
63

Going from tip

(outboard) to root
(inboard)

U3

64

Blade-element momentum theory

(BEM)

65

Principle of BEM (1)

Forces on the rotor blades
dFn:
Blade element theory
dFn

Ur = U(1-a)

Ft
Forces on the flow T:
Momentum theory
(Note: wind from other
direction as in momentum
theory slides)

A
Ue

Ur

66

Principle of BEM (2)

Forces on the rotor blades
dFn:
Blade
dFn element
Vres 2c ctheory
sin dr
l cos cd

Remember: needs a value for a to solve

Forces on the flow T:

Momentum theory

dT U 2 A 4a 1 a

Also needs a value for a to solve

67

Principle of BEM (3)

Forces on the rotor blades
dFn:
Blade element theory
Equate solutions for
forces of blade element
theory and momentum
theory
(Per annulus)
Forces on the flow
dT:
Momentum
dT U 2 4theory
a 1 a 2 r dr

dFn B dT
dT

dFn
B = number of blades

This gives an equation to solve induction factor a

68

Implicit assumptions made in BEM

1. Global forces on actuator disc match local forces on
blades
2. Stream tube theory and division into separate annuli
(without interaction) is valid
dr

annular
stream
tube

A 2 rdr

3. No radial flow over the blades: 2D aerofoil properties

apply
4. Tangential force doesnt influence the flow
5. (and various other assumptions)
69

The iterative nature of solving BEM

The blade is divided in several elements, typically 10-20
Per element:
1. Choose an initial value for the induction factor a
2. Use this to calculate the blade elements force dFn
3. Update a by equating dT to dFn and solving a for
this dT
Continue 1-3 until a reaches a constant value
With the solutions for a (and dFn, dT) for each annulus:
Integrate the forces (and moments) on the blade
over r
70

Results of BEM: a typical cp- curve

Maximum cP is
lower than Betz
limit due to
losses

This rotor is
designed for design
=8

71