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EMT 116/3

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS

Electronic

devices are made of


semiconductive material.
To understand how these devices
work, you should have a basic
knowledge of the structure of
atoms and the interaction of
atomic particles.

TOPICS
Atomic

Structure
Insulator, Semiconductor, Conductor
Current in semiconductors
The p-n junction
The structure of the diode
Biasing a Diode
Diode I-V characteristic
Diode Models
Testing a Diode

Atomic Structure
I

only want to design computers. I do not need to know


about atoms and electrons. A doomed computer engineer

ATOM???
The smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of
that element.
Consists of the protons and neutrons
that make up the nucleus (core) at the center
and electrons that orbit about the nucleus.
The nucleus carries almost the total mass of
the atom.
Neutrons are neutral and carry no charge.
Protons carry positive charges.
The electrons carry negative charges.
The number of protons = the number of electrons
in an atom, which makes it electrically neutral or
balanced.

Atomic Number

All elements are arranged in periodic table according to


their atomic number

Atomic number=number of proton in nucleus

Electron Shells and Orbits

Electrons orbit atom nucleus from a certain distance

Each distance corresponds to certain energy level

Energy levels increases as the distance from nucleus


increases

Orbits are grouped into energy bands = shells

Valence shell (3 valence electrons)


Max number of electrons (Ne) in each
shell =

N e 2n

Valence
electron

shells

n = number of shell
Nucleus

orbiting
electrons

Gallium

Electron Shells and Orbits


1st shell (K): 2n2 = 2(1)2 = 2
electrons
2nd shell (L): 2n2 = 2(2)2 = 8
electrons
3rd shell (M): 2n2 = 2(3)2 = 18
electrons

4th shell (N):

electrons
Total:

29
Shells or
electrons
orbital
n = the shell number paths

Valence Shell

Valence shell is the outermost


shell in an atom that determines
the conductivity of an atom.
The electrons in valence shell
are called valence electrons.

N
M

29 p

29 n

Valence
shell

Valence
electron

QUIZ #1
________is the smallest particle of an element that
retains the characteristics of that element.
An atom consists of the ___and ______
that make up the nucleus (core) at the center
and electrons that orbit about the nucleus.
The nucleus carries almost the total mass of
the atom.
Neutrons are neutral and carry __________.
Protons carry______________.
The electrons carry ________________.

1. Every known element


has
A)

the same type of atoms


B) the same number of atoms
C) a unique type of atom
D) several different types of
atoms

2. An atom consists of
A)

One nucleus and only one


electron
B) one nucleus and one more
electrons
C) protons, electrons and
neutrons
D) answers (B) and (C)

3. The nucleus of an atom is


made up of
A)

Protons and neutrons


B) electrons
C) Electrons and protons
D) Electrons and neutrons

4. Valence electrons are


A)

in the closest orbit to the


nucleus
B) in the most distant orbit from
the nucleus
C) in various orbits around the
nucleus
D) not associated with a
particular atom

Semiconductor
Material that is between conductor and insulator in its
ability to conduct electrical current.
Play a significant role in the development of modern
electronic device such as diodes, transistors, and integrated
circuits.
Class of semiconductor :
- Single-crystal : Ge, Si & C
- Compound - : GaAs, CdS & GaAsP - - - - Si
- Semiconductor atoms

G
e

- -

- - - -

Insulator
Material that does not conduct
electrical current under normal
conditions.
Valence electrons are tightly bound
to the atoms very few free
electrons.
Most good insulators are
compounds rather than single-elemet
materials.
Example : rubber, plastics, glass,

Conductor
Material that easily conducts electrical
current.

Valence electrons are very loosely bound t


the atomsmany free electrons.
Characterized by atoms with only one
valence electron.
The best conductors are single-element
materials.
Example. : copper, silver, gold and
aluminum.

Energy Bands
Valence shell of an atom represent a band of
energy level that contains valence electrons.
When an electron have enough additional
energy, it can leave the valence shell to become
a free electron and exist in conduction band.
The energy gap is the difference between the
valence band and conduction band. This is the
amount of energy that a valence electron must
have to jump form valence band to conduction
band.
In conduction band, electron is free to move
throughout the material and is not tied to any
atom.

Energy
Energy
Conduction band

Energy gap

E4 =
1.8eV
E3 =
E20.7eV
E1

E = energy
level

Conductio
n band

Valence
band

Second band
(shell 2)

Valence band
First band
(shell 1)
Nucleu
s

Energy Level

Energy levels: conduction and valence bands of (a) insulator, (b)


semiconductor, and (c) conductor.
The amount of energy that the valence electrons must attain to be
elevated to the next level (conduction band) is measured in
electron volts (1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joules), which is the energy gap
between valence band and conduction band.

Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to


a Conductor Atom

Valence
electrons
Core (+1

Valence
electrons
Core (+4)

Silicon atom

Copper atom

Core of Si atom has a net charge of +4 (14 protons 10 electrons) and core Cu
has a net charge of +1 (29 protons 28 electrons).
The core includes everything except the valence electron.
A valence electron in Si atom feels an attractive force of +4 compared to Cu atom
which feels an attractive force of +1.
The distance from its nucleus of Coppers valence electron (in 4th shell) > silicons
valence electron (in 3rd shell).

Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonding is the method
by which atoms complete their
valence shells by sharing
valence electrons.

The results of this bonding are:

--

1. The atoms are held together,


+
forming a solid substance.
2. The atoms are all electrically
stable, because their valence Covalent bonding in a
semiconductor crystal
shells are complete.
3. The completed valence shells
cause the atom to act as an
insulator.

+
-

(a) Covalent bonding of Si crystal

(b) Covalent bonding of GaAs


crystal
Covalent bonding in (a) Si and (b) GaAs
crystal

This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons, is


called covalent bonding

Conduction Electrons and Holes


An intrinsic (pure) silicon at room
temperature
has sufficient heat (thermal) energy for
some
valence electrons to jump from valence
band
to conduction band.
When an electron jumps to the
conduction band, a vacancy is left in the
valence band. For every electron raised
to the conduction band by external
energy, there is one hole left in valence
band, creating an electron-hole pair.
Recombination occurs when a
conduction-band electron loss its energy
and falls back into a hole in the valence
band.

(a)

(b)

Creation of electron-hole pairs in a Si atom. (a)


energy diagram, and (b) bonding diagram

The energy given up by the electron is in

At room temperature, at any instant, a number of free


electrons that are unattached to any atom drift randomly
throughout the material. This condition occurs when no
voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic Si.

Free electrons are being


generated continuously while
some recombine with holes

Electron and Hole Current


When a voltage is applied across the piece of intrinsic Si, the
thermally generated free electrons in the conduction band,
which are free to move, are now easily attracted toward the
positive end.
The movement of free electrons in a semiconductive material is
called electron current.
At the same time, there are also an equal number of holes in
the valence band created by electrons that jump into the
conduction band. The hole has moved from place to another in
crystal structure .
The current in valence band is produced by valence electrons is
called hole current.

Free electrons are attracted toward the positive end

Hole current in intrinsic Si

PN Junction
Few terms and processes that are frequently referred to in p-n junction theory
Terms/Processes

Definitions

Doping

the process of adding impurity atoms to the


intrinsic semiconductor in order to alter the
balance between holes and electrons (or to
increase the conductivity of the
semiconductor).

N-type impurities
(donor)

the type of impurities that add (donate)


electrons to intrinsic semiconductors, when
combined.

P-type impurities
(acceptors)

the type of impurities that produce holes


(accept electrons) in intrinsic semiconductors,
when combined.

Few terms and processes that are frequently


referred to in p-n junction theory
Terms/Processes
Ionization

Diffusion current

Definitions
the process of losing or gaining a valence electron. If a neutral
atom loses a valence electron, it is no longer neutral and is
called a positive ion. On the other hand, if a neutral atom gains
a valence electron, it is called a negative ion.
results when there is a non-uniform concentration of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) in the semiconductor; that is, if
there is a higher density of carriers in one region and lower
density in another, carriers start migrating from the region of
higher density to the region with lower density until a fairly
uniform concentration is established in the semiconductor. The
flow of these charge carriers during migration constitutes a
current flow called diffusion current, and the carriers are said
to diffuse from one region to another.

Extrinsic materials
A

semiconductor material that


has been subjected to the doping
process is called an extrinsic
material.
Type of materials
n-type
p-type

N-type semiconductor
An n-type semiconductor is produced when the intrinsic
semiconductor is doped with n-type impurity atoms that have five
valence electrons (pentavalent), such as arsenic (As), antimony (Sb),
Bismuth (B) and phosphorus (P). Pentavalent atom is called a donor
atom.
Energy
-

Si

Si

Si

Conduction band

Si

Excess
covalent
bond
electron

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Electrons
(majority carriers)
Valence band

N-type semiconductor. Four of P atoms


valence electrons are used to form the
covalent bond with Si atoms, leaving one
extra electron

Holes
(minority carriers)
Energy diagram (n-type
semiconductor)

P-type Semiconductor
A p-type semiconductor is produced when the intrinsic semiconductor
is doped with p-type impurity atoms that have three valance electrons
(trivalent), such as aluminum, boron, and gallium. Trivalent atom is
referred to as an acceptor atom.
-

Si

Si

Conduction band

Si

Energy

Covalent
bond
- hole

Si

Valence band

Electrons
(minority carriers)

P-type semiconductor. Three of B


atom valence electrons are used in
the covalent bonds, leaving one hole

Holes
(majority carriers)
Energy diagram (p-type
semiconductor)

What

will happen if we
combine p-type
semiconductor and n-type
semiconductor?

P type
semiconductor
Si crystal doped
with trivalent
atoms such Boron,
Antimony, etc.
Has majority of
holes.

N type
semiconductor
Si crystal doped
with pentavalent
such as
Phosporous,Atseni
c,etc.
Has majority of
electron.

Formation of PN-junction
If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is n-type and
other part is p-type, a p-n junction forms at the boundary
between the two region and a diode is created

At instant junction formation, free electrons in the


n region near the p-n junction begin to diffuse
across the junction and fall into holes near the
junction in p region

Formation of Depletion region

When the p-n junction is formed n region loses electron (diffuse across
junction) and creates a layer of positive charges near the junction.

As electron moves across the junction, p region loses hole as the electron
and holes combine. This create a layer of negative charges near the
junction. These two layers form the depletion region.

Depletion refer to region near the p-n junction is depleted of charge carrier
(electrons and holes) due to diffusion across junction.

For every free electron that diffuse across the junction and combines with a
hole, a positive charge is created in p region, forming a barrier potential. This
action continues until the voltage of the barrier prevent further diffusion.

+4

+4

+4

+4

+3

+4

+4

+4

Total (+) = 19
Total (-) = 20
Net charge =
-1

+5

+4

N-type

Junction

P-type

Total (+) = 21
Total (-) = 20
Net charge =
+1

Depletion layer charges

Each electron that diffuses across the junction leaves


one positively charged bond in the n-type material
and produces one negatively charged bond in the ptype material.
Both conduction-band electrons and valence-band
holes are need for conduction through the materials.
When an electron diffuses across the junction, the ntype material has lost a conduction-band electron.
When the electron falls into a hole in the p-type
material, that material has lost a valence-band hole.
At this point, both bonds have been depleted of

Energy diagram of PN junction and Depletion Region

Bias
Bias is a potential applied to p-n junction to obtain certain operating
conditions.
This potential is used to control the width of the depletion layer.
By controlling the width of the depletion layer, we are able to control the
resistance

of the p-n junction and thus the amount of current that can pass
through the
Table 1.3: The relationship between the width of depletion layer and the junction
device.
current

Depletion Layer Width

Junction Resistance

Junction Current

Minimum

Minimum

Maximum

Maximum

Maximum

Minimum

Forward Bias
Forward bias is a potential used to reduce the resistance of p-n junction.
A forward-biased p-n junction has minimum depletion layer width and
junction
resistance.
There are two requirements to produce forward bias:
- The positive side of voltage source (denoted as bias voltage) is
connected
to the p-type material of the p-n junction semiconductor and the
negative
side is connected to the n-type material.
- Bias voltage must be greater than the barrier potential. Barrier
potensial is an
energy hill that is created by the electric field between the positive
and

Fig.1.19: A p-n junction connected for forward bias

when a p-n junction is forward- biased?


The negative side of the bias-voltage source pushes the free electrons (the
majority carriers in n-type material) toward the p-n junction because like
charges repel.
The negative terminal also provides a continuous flow of electrons into the n
region.
The free electrons obtain sufficient energy from the bias-voltage to overcome
the
barrier potential of the depletion region and move on through into the p region.
theOnce in the p region, this free electron have lost too much energy overcoming
barrier potensial and thus, the free electrons cant remain in the conduction
band for longer. They immediately combine with holes in valence band.
Since unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts
the valence electrons toward the left end of the p region.
The holes in the p region provide the medium or pathway for these valence
electrons to move through the p region.
The valence electrons move from one hole to the next toward the left.

As the electrons flow out of the p region through the external connection and
to the positive side of the bias-voltage source, they leave holes behind in the p
region; at the same time, these electrons become conduction electrons in the
metal conductor.
There is a continuous availability of holes effectively moving toward the p-n
junction to combine with the continuous stream of electrons as they come
across the junction into the p region.

Fig.1.20: A forward-biased p-n junction showing the flow of majority


carriers and the voltage due to the barrier potential across the
depletion region

The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region


As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive
ions is reduced.
As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the other side
of the p-n junction, the number of negative ions is reduced.
This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias causes the
depletion region to narrow.

The Effect of Barrier Potential During Forward Bias


When forward bias is applied, the free electrons have enough energy to
overcome the barrier potential and effectively climb the energy hill and
cross the depletion region.
When the free electrons cross the depletion region, they give up an
amount of energy equivalent to the barrier potential.
The energy loss results in a voltage drop across the p-n junction equal to
the barrier potential.
An additional small voltage drop occurs across the p and n regions due to
the internal resistance of the material. This resistance is called the dynamic
resistance.
For doped semiconductive material, the dynamic resistance is very small
and can usually be neglected.

Reverse Bias
Reverse bias is a potential that essentially prevents current through
the diode.
A reverse-biased p-n junction has maximum depletion layer width and
junction
resistance.
There are two requirements to produce forward bias:
- The positive side of voltage source (denoted as bias voltage) is

connected
to the n-type material of the p-n junction semiconductor and the
negative
side is connected to the p-type material.
- The depletion region is much wider than in forward bias.

Fig.1.21: A p-n junction connected for reverse


bias.

s when a p-n junction is reverse- biased?

The positive side of the bias-voltage source pulls the free electrons (the
majority carriers in n-type material) away from the p-n junction because unlike
charges attract.

As the electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage source, additional
positive

ions are created. This results in a widening of the depletion region and
a depletion of majority carriers.

In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source enter as
valence

electrons and move from hole to hole toward the depletion region
where they
create additional negative ions. This results in a widening of the
depletion
region and depletion of majority carriers.

The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional and lasts for only a very short
time after

the reverse-bias voltage is applied.

As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority carriers decreases.


As more of the n and p regions become depleted of majority carriers, the
electrical field

Fig.1.22: The p-n junction during the short transition


time immediately after reverse-bias voltage is
applied

Reverse Current
There is the extremely small current exists in reverse bias after the
transition

current dies out. It is caused by the minority carriers in the n and p


region that
are produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs.
The small number of free minority electrons in the p region are pushed
toward

the p-n junction by negative bias voltage.


When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they fall down
the energy

hill and combine with the minority holes in the n region as valence
electrons
and flow toward the positive bias voltage, creating a small hole
current.
The conduction band in the p region is at a higher energy level than the

conduction band in the n region. Therefore, the minority electrons


easily pass
through the depletion region because they require no additional
energy.

Fig.1.23: The extremely small reverse current in a reverse-biased


diode is due to the minority carriers from thermally generated
electron-hole pairs

Reverse Breakdown
Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be neglected.
However, if the
external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value called the
breakdown
voltage, the reverse current will drastically increase.
The small number of free minority electrons in the p region are pushed
toward

the p-n junction by negative bias voltage.


When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they fall down
the energy

hill and combine with the minority holes in the n region as valence
electrons
and flow toward the positive bias voltage, creating a small hole
current.
The conduction band in the p region is at a higher energy level than the

conduction band in the n region. Therefore, the minority electrons


easily pass
through the depletion region because they require no additional
energy.

Diodes
Introduction
A diode is a two-electrode (two-terminal)
device that acts as an one-way
conductor.

VD
Anode (A)

Cathode (K)

The p region is called the anode and the


n region is called the cathode.

ID

The arrow in the symbol points in the


direction of conventional current
(opposite
to electron flow).

Fig. 1.24: The symbol for the pn junction diode

VF

The most basic type of diode is the p-n


junction diode.
A diode is forward-biased when the positive
terminal of the source is connected to the
anode through a current-limiting resistor and
the negative terminal is connected to the
cathode.

VBias

IF

(a) Forward-biased diode

A diode is reverse-biased when the negative


terminal of the source is connected to the
anode and the positive terminal is connected
to
the cathode.
When forward biased, a p-n junction diode

VD
+

VBias

I0

conducts. When reverse biased, it effectively


blocks the flow of charge (current).

(b) Reverse-biased diode


Fig.1.25: Two different bias circuits

The Ideal Diode Model


The ideal diode behaves like a closed switch (ON) when forward biased, and like an
open switch (OFF) when it is reverse biased.

VA

VA

VA

IF = 0

IF > 0
VF

VK

IF

VF = 0
VK
ON

The behavior of the ideal diode can be


summarized as following:

VF < 0
VK
OFF

Fig.1.26: The behavior of the diode: (a)


ideal diode, (b) short circuit and (c) open
circuit

If the diode is ON, current passes


from the anode to cathode.
Therefore,
we can replace it with a short circuit.
is

If the diode is OFF, cathode voltage


greater than anode voltage. Then, we
can replace it with an open circuit.
Diode ON : IF > 0; VF = 0 VA = VK
Diode OFF: IF = 0; VF < 0 VA < VK

This model is adequate for most troubleshooting when you are trying to determine
wheter the diode is working properly.

Based on the characteristics of a switch,


it can be stated that the ideal diode:

IF

1. When reverse biased (open switch):


a. The diode has infinite resistance.
b. The diode does not pass current.
c. The diode drops the applied voltage
across its terminals.
2. When forward biased (closed switch):
a. The diode has no resistance.
b. The diode does not limit the circuit
current.
c. The diode has no voltage drop
across its terminals.

Forward
operating
region
VR

II

III

IV

Reverse
operating
region
IR
Fig.1.27: I-V characteristics of the ideal
diode

VF

Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are neglected, the
diode is assumed to have a zero voltage across it when forward-biased, as indicated
by the portion of the curve on the positive vertical axis (Fig.1-27).

VF 0 V
The forward current is determined by the bias voltage and the limiting resistor using
Ohms law:

VBias
IF
RLimit

(1-1)

Since the reverse current is neglected, its value is assumed to be zero, as indicated in
Fig.1-27 by the portion of the curve on the negative horizontal axis.

I R 0V
The reserve voltage equals the bias
voltage.

VR VBias

Example 1-1:
For the diode circuits in Fig. 1.28 (a) and (c), determine if the diode is ON or OFF. Find
VR, IR, VF, and IF.
+12 V

+12 V
IR

+
VR

R = 2K

IR

+
VR

R = 2K

IF

IF

VF

IR

IR

VR

R = 2K

V2

VF

IF

VF

V2

V2

(a)

R = 2K

V2

VR

IF

VF

+12 V

V1

V1

+12 V

V1

(b)

(c)
Figure
1.28

V1

(d)

The Practical Diode Model


The practical model includes the barrier potential.
When the diode is forward-biased, it is equivalent to a closed switch in
series with a small equivalent voltage source (VF) equals to the barrier
potential (0.7) with the positive side toward the anode, as indicated in
Fig.1-29(a).
This equivalent voltage source represents the barrier potential that must
be exceeded by the bias voltage before the diode will conduct and is not an
active source of voltage.
When the diode is reverse-biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just
as in the ideal model, as shown in Fig.1-29(b).
The barrier potential does not affect reverse bias.
Since the barrier potential is included and the dynamic resistance is
neglected, the diode is assumed to have a voltage across it when forwardbias, as indicated by the portion of the curve to the right of the origin (in
Fig.1-29(c)).

Since the barrier potential is included and the forward dynamic resistance are
neglected, the diode is assumed to have a voltage across it when forward-biased, as
indicated by the portion of the curve to the right of the origin (Fig.1-29(c)).

VF 0.7 V
The forward current is determined as follows by first applying Kirchoffs
voltage law:

VBias VF
IF
RLimit

(1-2)

The diode is assumed to have zero reverse current, as indicated by the portion of
the curve on the negative horizontal axis.

IR 0 A

VR VBias
This model is useful to troubleshoot in lower-voltage circuits and to design the basic
diode circuits.

Fig.1.29: The practical model of a


diode

The Complete Diode Model


The complete model includes the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic
resistance (rd), and the large internal reverse resistance (rR).
When the diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed switch in series with the
equivalent barrier voltage (VB) and the small forward dynamic resistance (r d), as
indicated in Fig.1-30(a).
When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in parallel with the
large internal reverse resistance (rR), as shown in Fig.1-30(b).
The barrier potential does not affect reverse bias.
Since the barrier potential and the dynamic resistance are included, the diode is
assumed to have a voltage across it when forward-biased.
This voltage (VF) consists of the barrier potential voltage plus the small voltage
drop across the dynamic resistance, as indicated by the portion of the curve to the
right of the origin.
The curve slops because the voltage drop due to dynamic resistance increases as
the current increases.

Fig.1.30: The complete model of a


diode

For the complete model of a silicon diode, the following


formulas apply:

VF 0.7 V I F rd'
VBias 0.7 V
IF
RLimit rd'

(1-3)

(1-4)

For troubleshooting work, it is unnecessary to use the complete model,


because it involves complicated calculations. This model is generally suited
to design problems using a computer for simulation.

Exercise 1.1:
(a)Determine the forward voltage and forward current for the
diode in Fig.1.31(a) for each of the diode models. Also find the
voltage across the limiting resistor in each case. Assume r d =
10 at the determined value of forward current.
(b)Determine the reverse voltage and reverse current for the
diode in Fig.1.31(b) for each of the diode models. Also find the
voltage across the limiting resistor in each case. Assume I R =
RLimit
RLimit
1A.

VBias

IF

2k
VBias

10 V

(a) Forward-biased diode

IF

2k

10 V

(b) Reverse-biased diode

Fig.1.31: Two different bias circuits

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