INDIVIDUAL LEARNER

DIFFERENCES

Factors listed as influencing individual learner

differences in language learning in three surveys

A framework for investigating

individual learner differences

 Beliefs, affective states, and general factors

are interrelated.
Learners have different strategies to employ
in learning L2.
Language learning outcomes are about L2
proficiency, achievement, and rate of
acquisition. It is the products of the
acquisitional process.
There is mutable factors exist in a symbiotic
relationship in this framework. E.g., anxiety
and motivation influence learning but
perceived success or failure in learning will
also have an effect on motivation.

The methodology of individual difference

research (Skehan: 1989)

The hierarchical approach: believes the

theory that affords prediction about how
particular IDs affect learning. These
predictions take hypothesis which can be
tested empirically.
The concatenative approach: is a researchthen-theory approach which its starting point
is the identification of a general research
question. This studies the relationship
between the independent variable(s) and the
dependent one(s).

 Naturalistic Research: involves the collection

of qualitative data, collects data through
detailed observation of subjects and
settings, diary studies, journals, think aloud
and interview. E.g., It studies IDs by
obtaining data from two or more learners
performing the same or similar tasks and
then analyzing the differences.
Confirmatory research: seeks to control
learning environment and to manipulate key
variables, collects data by testing the
learners, analyzes data statistically and
involves an experimental and a control
group who receives different treatment.

Learners beliefs about language learning

Language learners bring variety to class, especially
the adult ones.
Learners view of language learning (Wenden
(1986a;1987a) contains three categories:
1. Use of language: includes beliefs relating to the
importance of learning in natural way, practicing,
trying to think, living and studying in L2).
2. Learning about language: includes beliefs about
emphasizing learning grammar and vocabulary,
enrolling a language class, receiving feedback on
errors they made, and being mentally active.
3. Importance of personal factors: includes beliefs about
the feelings that facilitate or inhibit learning, selfconcept, and aptitude for learning.

The beliefs of 32 intermediate level students

of different ethnic background about language
learning (Horwitz, 1987a)
They felt that people were born with special
aptitude for learning language and possessed the
aptitudes themselves.
They believed that certain languages were difficult
than others. E.g., English.
They believed that it was necessary to know Englishspeaking culture in order to speak English well.
They favored the use of audio material and endorsed
the need to repeat and practice.
They felt it is necessary to avoid errors.

 Beliefs
might
affect
learning
outcomes.
Different views about language
learning result in different kinds of
success.
The study of learners opinions about
language constitutes an important
area of enquiry.
It can be assumed that the learners
beliefs and philosophy dictates their
approach to learning and choice of
specific learning strategies.

Learners affective states

Learners,
in
particular
classroom
learners, react to the learning situations
they find themselves in a variety of
affective ways.
Learners need to feel secure and to be
free of stress before they can focus on
learning task.

Anxiety
Anxiety consists of trait anxiety, state anxiety,
and situation anxiety.
Trait anxiety: a more permanent predisposition
to be anxious. It is viewed as an aspect of
personality.
State anxiety: apprehension that is experienced
at a particular moment in time as a response to a
definite situation. It is a combination of trait
and situation-specific anxiety.
Situation anxiety: anxiety which is aroused by
specific type of situation or event such as public
speaking and examinations.

Causes of Anxiety
Learners competitive natures can act as a
source of anxiety.
Tests and learners perceived relationship
with their teachers.
Teachers questions.
Result of fear or experience of losing oneself
in the target culture (culture shocks).
Emotional regression, panic, anger, self-pity,
indecision, sadness, alienation, reduced
personality.

Anxiety effects
Anxiety can affect three stages of the
learning process: input, processing, and
output.
However, research also found that not
all
studies
produced
significant
correlation
between
anxiety
and
achievement.

 Facilitating anxiety: motivates learners

to fight the new learning tasks,
prompting them to make extra efforts
to overcome their feelings of anxiety.
Debilitating
anxiety:
causes
the
learners to flee the learning task in
order to avoid the source of anxiety.

The Importance of learners

affective states

Learners affective states are

obviously of crucial importance in
accounting for individual differences in
learning outcomes. Whereas learners
beliefs about language learning are
likely to be fairly stable, their affective
states tend to be volatile, affecting not
only overall progress but responses to
particular learning activities on a dayby-day and even moment-by-moment
basis.

General factors contributing to individual

differences in second language learning

Age
There is belief that younger L2
learners generally do better than
older learners. This is supported by
the critical period hypothesis. Some
experts believe the optimum period
for language acquisition falls within
the first years of life.

The effects of age on rate of second

language learning

Krashen, et al., concludes:

Adults are superior to children in rate of
acquisition.
Older children learn more rapidly than
younger children
With regard to morphology and syntax,
the adolescents did best, followed by
the adults, with the children last.
In case of formal learning, adults seem
to do better.

The effects of age on the acquisition of nativespeaker proficiency

A study suggests that under the right conditions adults
can achieve native ability in pronunciation the area of
language generally considered to be the most difficult for
adults to require.
A study found that despite the native-like performance of
the learners in language production, their grammatical
competence differed from that of native speakers.
Under ideal circumstances, learners who start after
puberty can learn to produce speech and writing that
cannot easily be distinguished from that of native
speakers.
Thompsons (1991) study also shows that starting early is
no guarantee that native-speaker abilities will be achieved,
even in the most favorable learning situations.

The effects of age on learners second language

achievement
Studies show that younger is better.
E.g., learners who starts as children achieve
more native-like accent than those who start
as adolescents or adults.
Learners who had entered the USA before the
age of 15 were rated syntactically proficient
than learners who had entered after 15.
However, older learners have benefited in the
acquisition of L2 literacy skills. they performed
better than younger learners.

The effect of age on the process of second

language acquisition

Some studies showed that adults go

through the same stages of
acquisition as children.
Experts seem to have different view
about the effect of age in second
language acquisition.

Explaining the role of age in second

language acquisition

Language Aptitude
General aptitude is capability of learning a task,
which depends on some combination of more or less
enduring characteristics of the learner (Carroll,
1981).
Carroll views about language aptitude: (1) aptitude is
separate from achievement; (2) aptitude must be
shown to be separate from motivation; (3) aptitude
must be seen as a stable factor, perhaps even innate;
(4) aptitude is to be viewed not as prerequisite for L2
acquisition, but as a capacity that enhances the rate
and ease of learning; and (5) aptitude must be found
to be distinct from general intelligence.

Carroll (1965) identified four factors in

language aptitude:
Phonemic coding ability (the ability to code
foreign sounds in a way that they can
remembered later).
Grammatical sensitivity (the ability to
recognize the grammatical functions of words
in sentences).
Inductive language learning ability (the ability
to identify patterns of correspondence and
relationships involving form and meaning).
Rote learning ability (the ability to form and
remember associations between stimuli).

Learning styles
Learning style refers to the
characteristics ways in which
individuals orientate to problemsolving.
Learning style is the characteristics
cognitive, affective and physiological
behaviors that serve as relatively
stable indicators of how learners
perceive, interact with and respond to
the learning environment, learning
style is a consistent way of
functioning, that reflects underlying

Field
dependence/independence
Witkin et al., (1971) state:
In a field-dependent mode of perceiving,
perception is strongly dominated by the
overall organization of the surrounding field,
and parts of the field are experienced as
fused. In a field-independent mode of
perceiving, parts of the field are experienced
as discrete from organized ground field
dependent and field independent like
designations tall and short are relative.

The characterization of FI ad FD
individuals

Other approaches to investigating learning style

in second language learners

Reid (1987) distinguished four

perceptual learning modalities:
1 visual learning (e.g., reading and
studying charts)
2 auditory learning (e.g., listening to
lectures or to audio tapes)
3 kinesthetic learning (involving physical
report)
4 tactile learning (hands-on learning, as
in building models)

Motivation
Skehan (1989) puts forward four hypotheses about
motivation:
1. The intrinsic Hypothesis: motivation derives from an
inherent interest in the learning tasks the learner is
asked to perform.
2. The resultative hypothesis: learners do not well will
persevere, those who do not do well will be
discouraged and try less hard.
3. The internal cause hypothesis: the learner brings to the
learning situation a certain quantity of motivation as
given.
4. The carrot and stick hypothesis: external influences and
incentives will affect the strength of the learners
motivation

Integrative motivation
Integrative motivation is strongly
related to L2 achievement. It
combines with instrumental
motivation to serve as a powerful
predictor of success in formal
contexts. Learners with integrative
motivation are more active in class
and are less likely to drop out

Instrumental motivation
Learners with an instrumental reason
for learning an L2 can be successful.
It can lead learners to increase the
time to study. E.g., giving students a
financial reward for performing a task
successfully.

Resultative motivation
Learners motivation is strongly affected by
their achievement.
E.g., Savignon (1972)
reported that students desire to learn French
increased with gains in French proficiency.
Some experts believe that it is success that
contributes to motivation rather than viceversa.
It seems that the relationship between
motivation and achievement is an interactive
one.

Motivation as intrinsic
interest
Interest is one of the main elements of
motivation and a positive response to stimuli
based on existing cognitive structures in such a
way that learners curiosity is aroused and
sustained.
Learner is said to be motivated if she becomes
productively engaged on learning tasks, and
sustains that engagement, without the need for
continual encouragement or direction.
Intrinsic motivation can be developed by
providing opportunities for communication.

 Personality: The personality of the students

constitutes a major factor contributing to
success or failure in language learning.
Extroversion/introversion: one of severaldimensions
or
traits
which
together
constitute an individuals personality.
Extraverts are sociable, like parties, have
many friends and need excitement; they are
sensation-seekers and risk takers, like
practical jokes and are lively and active.
Conversely, introverts are quiet, prefer
reading to meeting people, have a few but
close friends and usually avoid excitement.

THANK YOU