DET 101/3

Basic Electrical Circuit 1

DC CIRCUITS:
CHAPTER 3

Methods of Circuit Analysis and

Circuit Theorems:

Nodal Analysis (Node-Voltage Method)

Mesh Analysis (Mesh-Current Method)
Superposition Theorem
Source Transformation
Thevenins Theorem
Nortons Theorem
Maximum Power Transfer

Introduction

Direct methods are not suitable to solve

complex and large circuits or as we
demand many unknowns.
To aid the analysis of complex circuit
structures-need to develop more powerful
techniques from the basic laws by
systematic approaches: Nodal Analysis
and Mesh Analysis.
These two techniques can be used to
solve almost any kind of circuit analysis
problems by means of a set of
simultaneous equations.

Introduction (Continued)
Four ways of solving simultaneous
equations:
1. Cramers rule
2. Calculator (real numbers only)
3. Normal substitution and elimination
(not more than two equations)
4. Computer program packages:
matcad, maple, mathematica etc.

Introduction (Continued)

Circuit analysis problems in this course

will be limited to three linear
simultaneous equations for conventional
hand solutions.
Circuit theorems merely developed to
simplify circuit analysis applicable to
linear circuits such as Thevenins and
Nortons theorems, superposition
theorem, source transformation and
maximum power transfer.

Introduction (Continued)

Circuit theorems are not analysis

techniques, rather they add up to the list
of simplifying/reduction techniques such
as the series-parallel reductions and -Y
transformations.
Although many computer aids facilitate us
as effective mathematics tools to solve
engineering problems they cannot replace
the compulsory needs to study the circuit
theories govern circuit behavior in
performing both circuit analysis and
design.

Circuit Analysis Method

NODAL ANALYSIS

Concept

Developed based on the systematic

approach of Kirchhoffs current law
(KCL) to find all circuit variables
without having to sacrifice any of
the elements.
General procedure which is making
use of node voltages in circuit
analysis as key solutions.

Importance terms

Node Voltage: Potential difference

between a marked node and the
selected reference node.
Element Voltage: Potential
difference across any element or
branch in the circuit.
When Node Voltage = Element
Voltage?

Why use Node Voltage?

Further reduce the number of

equations to be solved
simultaneously.
No of independent equations = No
of the marked nodes exclusive of
the reference node.
Element voltages and currents can
be obtained in few steps using the
solved node voltages.

Assumptions

KCL is performed with current going

out from a node as positive (+ve)
while current entering a node as
negative (-ve).
in negative (subtract)
out positive (add)
All unknown currents assumed to be
leaving a particular node.

Nodal Analysis Procedures:

1.

2.

3.

Mark all essential nodes and assign

proper voltage designations except for
the appointed reference node.
Apply KCL to each nonreference nodes.
Use Ohms law to formulate the equation
in terms of node voltages. Assume all
unknown currents are directing out of
the nodes.
Solve the resulting simultaneous
equations to obtain the unknown node
voltages.

Applying Nodal Analysis on Simple

Circuit
Example 1 (3 unknowns)

Solution
Step 1:
Mark all essential
nodes
Assign unknown
V1
node voltages
Indicate the
reference node.

V2

V3

Solution (continued)

Step 2: Perform KCL at each

marked nonreference nodes using
Ohms law to formulate the
equations in terms of the node
voltages.

Solution (continued)

KCL V1: I s 1 I s 2
or

V1 V2

R1

(1)

I s 1 I s 2 G1 (V1 V2 )

KCL V2:

V2 0 V2 V3
V2 V1

0
R1
R3
R2

KCL V3:

I s2

V3 V2
V 0
3
0
R2
R4

(2)

(3)

Solution (continued)

Step 3: Solve the

resulting
simultaneous
equations from
step 2 above.

Solution (continued)

KCL V1:

V1 V2
2m 3m
10k

Simplify to

KCL V2:
Simplify to

V1 - V2 = 50

(1)

V2 V1 V2 0 V2 V3

0
10k
4k
5k
-2V1 + 11V2 - 4V3 = 0

KCL V3:

V3 V2 V3 0
3m

0
5k
2k

Simplify to

-2V2 + 7V3 = -30

(2)

(3)

Solution (continued)

Cramers rule: Put the equations in matrix forms.

Col-1

a1 b1 c1 V1 d1
a b c V d
2 2 2 2 2
a3 b3 c3 V3 d 3
Left
Col-1:
Col-2:
Col-3:

Col-2

Col-3

1 1 0
2 11 4

0 2 7

Matrix:
coefficients of V1 i.e. a1, a2 and a3
coefficients of V2 i.e. b1, b2 and b3
coefficients of V3 i.e. c1, c2 and c3

V1
50
V 0
2

V3
30

Middle Matrix: Unknown variables i.e. V1, V2 and V3

Right Matrix: Constants i.e. d1, d2 and d3

Solution (continued)

For third-order determinants, we use

shorthand methods of expansion
solution.
Shorthand method consists of
repeating the first two columns of the
determinant to the right of the
determinant and then summing the
products along the specific diagonals
as shown below.

Solution (continued)

Use determinants to solve for each

variable:

a 2 b2
a3 b3

1 0

1
c 2 2 11 4 -2
0 2 7 0
c3

a1 b1 c1

-1
11
-2

(1)(11)(7) (1)(4)(0) (0)(2)(2)

(0)(11)(0) (2)(4)(1) (7)(2)(1)}
77 (22) 55

Solution (continued)

Determinant 1 when coefficients for

V1 is replaced by the constants.
d1 b1 c1

50 1

1 d 2 b2 c2 0 11 4
d 3 b3 c3 30 2 7

50
0
-30

-1
11
-2

1 (50)(11)(7) (1)(4)(30) (0)(0)(2)

(30)(11)(0) (2)(4)(50) (7)(0)(1)}

3730 (400) 3330

Solution (continued)

Determinant 2 when coefficients for

V2 is replaced by the constants.
a1 d1 c1

2 a2

d2

a3 d 3

1 50 0
c2 2 0 4
0 30 7
c3

1
50
-2
0
0 -30

2 (1)(0)(7) (50)(4)(0) (0)(2)(30)

(0)(0)(0) (30)(4)(1) (7)(2)(50)}

(580) 580

Solution (continued)

Determinant 3 when coefficients for

V3 is replaced by the constants.
1 1
d 2 2 11

a1 b1 d1
3 a 2 b2

a3 b3 d 3

50
0

0 2 30

1
-2
0

-1
11
-2

3 (1)(11)(30) (1)(0)(0) (50)(2)(2)

(0)(11)(50) (2)(0)(1) (30)(2)(1)}

130 (60) 70

Solution (continued)

V1 = 1/ = 3330/55= 60.55 V

V2 = 2/ = 580/55 =10.55 V

V3 = 3/ = -70/55 =-1.27 V

You should verify your answers

using calculator for three unknowns.

Solution (continued)

Knowing all the node voltages, we can obtain the

element voltages, element currents and even
power dissipated by the passive elements such as:

VR1= V1 V2

IR1 = (V1 V2)/R1

PR1 = IR12R1 = VR12/R1

VR2= V2 V3

IR1 = (V2 V3)/R2

PR2 = IR22R2 = VR22/R2

**VR3= V2

IR1 = V2/R3

PR3 = IR32R3 = VR32/R3

**VR4= V3

IR4 = V32/R4

PR4 = IR42R3 = VR42/R4

**In these two cases, the element voltages

identical to node voltages because one of its
terminals is at reference node.

Can you find the power dissipated by

the 10 k resistor?

Need to find the element voltage of

10-k resistor because power
calculation formula uses element
voltage.

P10k = (V1 V2)2/10k

= (60.55 10.55)2/10k
= 502/10k = 0.25 W

Applying Nodal Analysis on Simple

Circuit
Example 2 (2 unknowns)
Q: Find the power dissipated in the
20- resistor?

Solution
Step 1:
Mark all
essential nodes
Assign unknown
node voltages
Indicate the
reference node.

Solution (Continued)

Step 2: Perform
V1
V1 V2
KCL at each
KCL V1:

10m
marked
100
50
nonreference
(1)
3V1 2V2 1
Hence
nodes using
Ohms law to
formulate the
equations in terms KCL V2: V2 V2 V1

9m 10m
of node voltages.

20

Hence

50

2V1 7V2 0.1

(2)

Solution (Continued)
Step

3: Solve the resulting

simultaneous equations
which have been simplified
in step 2 above using
Cramers rule.

Solution (Continued)
3
2

2
7

1
0.1

2
7

(3)(7) ( 2)( 2)

(1)(7) (2)(0.1)

17

6.8
2

3
2

1
0.1

Hence,
(3)(0.1) (2)(1)
V1 = 1/ = 6.8/17 = 0.4 V
1 .7
V2 = 2/ = 1.7 /17 = 0.1 V
P20 = V22/20 = 0.12(20) = 0.2 W #

Applying Nodal Analysis on Circuit with

Voltage Sources

Three different effects depending on

placement of voltage source in the
circuit.
Does the presence of a voltage
source complicate or simplify the
analysis?

Case 1: Voltage source between two

nonreference essential nodes.

Supernode
Equation:

Vs V1 V2

Case 2: Voltage source between a reference

essential node and a nonreference essential
node.

Known node voltage:

V1 Vs

Case 3: Voltage source between an essential

node and a non-essential node.

Node voltage at
non-essential node:

Va V1 Vs

Example 3
(Supernode or Known node voltage)

Q: Find the power of the 10-V voltage

source? Is it supplying energy to the
circuit or absorbing energy from the
circuit? Show your work according to the
nodal analysis procedure.

Solution 1 (Supernode)

Step 1: Mark essential nodes and assign unknown

node voltages and indicate the reference node.

Checklist:
3 essential nodes 1
ref node
1 supernode
= 1 KCL Eqn. + 1
Supernode Eqn.

Solution 1 (Continued)

Step 2: Perform KCL at each marked

nonreference nodes using Ohms law to
formulate the equations in terms of node
voltages.

KCL supernode V1/V2:

Hence
Supernode Equation:

V1
V2

3
80
8

V1 10V2 240

(1)

V1 V2 10

(2)

Solution 1 (Continued)

Step 3: Solve the resulting

simultaneous equations which have
been simplified in step 2 above.
Solving Eqn. (1) and (2)
simultaneously yields,
V1 = 30.91 V and V2 = 20.91 V
(You can check this answer by
calculator or Cramers rule).

Solution 1 (Continued)

Finding current through the voltage

source,
V1 V1 V2

i0
KCL at V1:

80

40

30.91 30.91 20.91

i

0.636 A
80
40
Hence,
P10-V = Vi= (10)(-0.636) = -6.36 W.
(Delivering energy)

Solution 2 (Known node voltage)

Step 1: Mark essential nodes and

assign unknown node voltages and
indicate the reference node.
Checklist:
3 essential nodes
1 ref node
1 known node
voltage
= 1 KCL Eqn.

Solution 2 (Continued)

Step 2: Perform KCL at each marked

nonreference nodes using Ohms law to
formulate the equations in terms of node
voltages.
Immediately known node
voltage at V1:
V1 10 V
KCL V2:

V2 10 V2

3
80
8

11V2 230

(1)

Solution 2 (Continued)

Step 3: Solve the resulting simultaneous

equations which have been simplified in
step 2 above.

230
V2
20.91 V
11

Solving Eqn. (1) yields,

Finding current through the voltage source,

KCL at V1:
V
V V
1

40

80

i0

10 10 20.91
i

0.636 A
40
80

Solution 2 (Continued)

Hence,
P10-V = Vi= (10)(-0.636) = -6.36 W.
(Delivering energy)

Example 4 (One of the terminals not

an essential node)

Q: Find the current through the 10-k

resistor. Show your work according to the
nodal analysis procedure.

Solution

Step 1: Mark essential nodes and assign

unknown node voltages and indicate the
reference node. For voltage sources, indicate the
node voltages at both ends with respect to the
assigned unknown node voltages at the essential
nodes
Checklist:
4 essential nodes 1
ref node
= 3 KCL Eqns.

Solution (Continued)

Step 2: Perform KCL at each marked

nonreference nodes using Ohms law to
formulate the equations in terms of node
voltages.

KCL V1:

V1
V1 (V2 15)

8m
1k
4k

Hence

5V1 V2 17

KCL V2:

V2 25 (V2 15) V1 V2 V3

0
10k
4k
4k

Hence

10V1 18V2 10V3 250

(1)

(2)

Solution (Continued)
KCL V3:
Hence

V3
V3 V2

8m
5k
4k

5V2 9V3 160

(3)

Solution (Continued)
Step 3: Solve the resulting
simultaneous equations which have
been simplified in step 2 above.
Solving Eqn. (1) till (3)
simultaneously yields,
V1 = -5.43 V, V2 = -10.17 V and
V3 = 12.13 V
(You can check this answer by
calculator and Cramers rule).

Solution (Continued)

Finding current through the 10-k

resistor,
(V2 15) V1 V2 V3

0
KCL at V2: i
4k

4k

10.17 15 5.43 10.17 12.13

i

3.01 mA
4k
4k

Applying Nodal Analysis on Circuit with

Dependent Sources

Circuits contain dependent sources

either VCVS, CCVS, VCCS or CCCS.
The presence of the dependent sources
require Constraint Equation (CE).
CE describes the dependent term of the
dependent sources in relation to the
assigned unknown node voltages or
known values at the essential nodes.

Example 5 (Circuit with dependent

sources)

Q: Use the node-voltage method to find

both dependent terms iO and Vx of the
dependent sources of the circuit in Figure
below.

Solution

Step 1: Mark essential nodes and assign

unknown node voltages and indicate the
reference node.
Checklist:
4 essential nodes 1
ref node 1 s/node
1 known
= 1 KCL Eqn. + 1
s/node Eqn. + 2
contraint Eqns.

Solution (Continued)

Step 2: Perform KCL at each marked

nonreference nodes using Ohms law to
formulate the equations in terms of node
voltages.
Known node voltage:
KCL s/node V2:
Hence

S/node equation:

V3 12 V

V2 V2 12

10io
2
8

5V2 80io 12

(1)

3V x V1 12

(2)

Solution (Continued)
Constraint equations: V x V2
and

V2 12 V1
io
10i o
8
10

Hence

720io 8V1 10V2 120

(3)

(4)

Substituting Eqn. (3) into (2) yields

V1 3V2 12

(2)

Solution (Continued)

Step 3: Solve the resulting simultaneous

equations which have been simplified in step 2
above.
Solving Eqn. (1), (2) and (4) simultaneously
yields,

V1 = -6.51 V, V2 = 1.83 V and io = -0.264 A

(You can check this answer by calculator and

Cramers rule).

Chapter 3, Problem 16.

Determine voltages v1 through v3 in the circuit of

Fig. 3.64 using nodal analysis. (Ans:V1=18.86V,
v2=6.29V, V3=13V)

Figure 3.64

Chapter 3, Problem 30.

Using nodal analysis, find vo and io in the circuit

of Fig. 3.78. (Ans: Vo=-1.344kV, io=-5.6A)

Figure 3.78

Chapter 3, Problem 31.

Figure 3.79

Find the node voltages for the circuit in Fig. 3.79.

(Ans: V1=4.97V, V2=4.85V, V3=-0.1212V)

Chapter 3, Problem 32.

Obtain the node voltages v1, v2, and v3

in the circuit of Fig. 3.80. (Ans:V1=2V,
V2=12V, V3=-8V)

Figure 3.80

Circuit Analysis Method

MESH ANALYSIS

Concept

Similar to nodal analysis.

Developed based on the systematic
approach of Kirchhoffs voltage law
(KVL) to find all circuit variables
without having to sacrifice any of
the elements.
General procedure which is making
use of mesh current in circuit
analysis as key solutions.

Importance terms

Mesh Current: Assigned unknown

current flows around the perimeter
of the particular mesh/loop.
Element Current: Actual current
thru any element or branch in the
circuit.
When Mesh Current = Element
Current?

Assumptions

KVL is performed in clockwise

direction.
Voltage rise negative (subtract)
Voltage drop positive (add)

Mesh Analysis Procedures:

1.

2.
3.

Label all independent meshes and

assign proper unknown mesh currents
in clockwise direction. Do the
checklist.
Formulate KVL/Supermesh/Constraint
Equation.
Solve the resulting simultaneous
equations to obtain the unknown
mesh current.

Applying Mesh Analysis on Simple

Circuit
PP 3.5 (2 unknowns)
Q: Find power dissipated in 12-resistor
and 3-resistor using mesh analysis.

Solution
1.

Label all independent meshes and assign

proper unknown mesh currents in clockwise
direction.
Checklist:
2 meshes = 2 KVL
Eqns.

Solution (Continued)
2.

Formulate
KVL/Supermesh/Constraint Eq.

KVL I1: 18I1 12I2 = 12

(1)

KVL I2: -12I1 + 24I2 = -8

(2)

Solution (Continued)

Solve the resulting

simultaneous
equations to obtain
the unknown mesh
current.
I1 = 1/

I2 = 2/

3.

18 12
12 24

(18)(24) (12)(12)
288
1

12

12

24

(12)(24) (12)(8)

18

12

192

12 8

(18)(8) ( 12)(12)
0

Solution (Continued)

Using calculator/Cramers rule we

obtain:
I1 = 0.667 A and I2 = 0 A
P12 = (I1 -I2)2(12) = 5.33 W
P3 = I22(3) = 0 W
Notice that the branch (3-resistor)
forming the outer most boundary of
the circuit will have mesh current =
element current.

Circuit with current sources and

dependent sources

Two different effects depending on

placement of voltage source in the circuit.
Does the presence of a current source
complicate or simplify the analysis?
The presence of dependent source in the
circuit need to impose constraint equation
to describe the r/ship btw. dependent term
of the dependent sources in relation to the
mesh currents.

Case 1: Current source located at the

outer most boundary

Connecting mesh current immediately known.

No need to apply KVL around that loop/mesh.
Mesh Current = Element Current = Current
Source Value

Immediately known
mesh current,

I3 = -Is

Case 2: Current source located at the

boundary between 2 meshes

Enclose the current source and combine

the two meshes to form a SUPERMESH.
KVL is performed around the supermesh
do not consider voltage across cur.
source.
Formulate s/mesh equation express the
r/ship btw mesh currents that form the
s/mesh and cur.source that it encloses.

SUPERMESH

KVL S/Mesh I2/I3:

-12 + I2R2 +I3R3 = I3R4

S/Mesh Eq:
I3 I2 = 3 mA

Practice Problem 3.7 (S/Mesh)

Use the mesh analysis to determine i1, i2

and i3.

Figure 3.25

Solution

Step 1: Checklist.

Checklist:
3 meshes I s/m =
2 KVL Eqns. + 1 s/node
Eq.

Solution (Continued)

Step 2: Formulate KVL/s.mesh

equation.
KVL i3: -2i1 4i2 + 8i3 = 0 (1)

KVL s/mesh i1/i2:

2i1 + 12i2 6i3 = 6

S/Mesh Eq: i1 i2 = 3

(2)
(3)

Solution (Continued)

Step 3: Solve the simultaneous

equations using Cramer rule or by
calculator.
We obtain, i1 = 3.474 A
i2 = 0.4737 A

i3 = 1.1053 A

Example 6 ( Known current &

dependent source)

Find the voltage of the dependent source

(CCCS).

Solution

Step 1: Assign mesh currents in CW

direction and perform checklist.
Checklist:
2 meshes I known =
1 KVL Eqn. + 1 CE

Solution (Continued)
Step 2: Formulate
KVL/Constraint equations.
Immediately known, I1 = 5ix

KVL I2:

21I2 = -8

CE:

ix = I 2

(1)
(2)
(3)

Solution (Continued)

Step 3: Solve the simultaneous

equations.
Substitute (3) into (1) and solve (1)
and (2) simultaneously, we obtain
I1 = 1.9048 A
I2 = -0.3810 A

Solution (Continued)

To find voltage across the CCCS,

perform KVL around loop I1.

KVL I1: -V + 9I1 8 = 0

V = 9(1.9048) 8
= 9.1432 V

Chapter 3, Problem 55.

In the circuit of Fig. 3.97, solve for i1,

i2, and i3. (Ans: i1=-1A, i2=0A, i3=2A)

Figure 3.97

Circuit Theorem

SUPERPOSITION

Advantages

Use of superposition theorem: to

find solution to circuits with multiple
independent sources which are
neither series nor parallel.
Advantage: no need to solve
simultaneous equations (tedious
computation for complex cct) in
order to find the circuit variables by
simplification techniques.

Concept

Concept: each independent source

is treated independently and the
algebraic sum is found to determine
a particular unknown quantity or
circuit variable of the circuit under
study.

Superposition Theorem
ST states that:
The current or voltage of any
element in a bilateral circuit is equal
to the algebraic sum of the currents
or voltages produced independently
by each source.

Principle of Operation

To consider the effect of each source

independently requires that source to be
removed and replaced without affecting
the final results.
To remove voltage source s.c the
terminals.
To remove current source o.c the
terminals.
Any dependent source treated as though
they are passive element (must be left
intact during the process).

Example 6 (P3.5)

Find the voltage across the 12 resistor using

superposition hence the power dissipated by
this resistor.

Solution

i) Consider 12V/removed 8V.

12 // 12
V'
x 12V
12 // 12 4 2
6V

Solution (Continued)

ii) Replace 8V/removed 12V

6 // 12
V ''
x 8V
6 // 12 9 3
2V

Solution (Continued)

Hence, V = V + V
= 6V + 2V = 8V.
P12 = V2/R = 82/12 = 5.33W

Example 7

Find the current in the 23 resistor using the

concept of superposistion.(Ans:11.23 A)

Exercise 1

Using superposition, find the voltage V

in the circuit? (Ans: 40V)

Circuit Theorem

SOURCE
TRANSFORMATON

What benefits from source

transformation?

Another tool to simplify circuit the

simpler the cct, the easier will be
the solution.
How to simplify? rearrange the
resistors/sources by S.Trans so that
they end up with series/parallel
connections.

Principle of Operation

The terminal v-i characteristics

must retain before and after
transformation as this concept is
based on equivalence.
S.Trans also applies to dependent
sources.
It does not affect the remaining part
of the circuit.

Definition

A Source Transformation is the

process of replacing a voltage
source Vs in series with resistor Rs
by a current source is in parallel
with the same resistor Rs or vice
versa.

Equivalent Circuits

The connections of each case should be between the

same terminals before and after transformation.

In order for the

circuits in the left and
right sides to be
equivalent:

Vs I s Rs

Vs
Is
Rs

Example 8

Use series of source transformations to

find io in the circuit below.

Solution

Transform 4A and 5 into voltage

source.

Solution (cntd)

Transform 10 A
and 1 into
voltage source.
Transform 10 V
and 40 into
current source.

Solution (ctnd)

Transform 10V and 10 into current

source.

Solution (cntd)

Combine the
current sources
2A and 0.25A.
Combine
resistors 10
and 40.
Solve for I
using CDR.

8
i
x 1.25 A 1 A
10

Practice Problem 4.6

Find io in the circuit of Figure 4.19 using

source transformation. (Ans:1.78A)

Practice Problem 4.7

Use S.Trans to find ix in the cct shown in

Figure 4.22. (Ans:1.176A)

Exercise 2

Use STrans to find Vo. (Ans:-135V)

Circuit Theorem

THEVENINS
THEOREM

Purpose

Used when we are interested ONLY in the

terminal behavior of the circuit
particularly where a variable load is
connected to.
Provides a technique to replaced the fixed
part of the circuit by a simple equivalent
circuit.
Avoid the re-do on the analysis of the
entire circuit except for the changed load.

Thevenins Theorem

States that A linear two-terminal

circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of an
open-circuit voltage source at the
terminals, VTh in series with a
resistor RTh where RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the
terminals when all independent
source are turned off.

Replacing linear two-terminal (a-b)

circuit by its Thevenin equivalent

Original circuit

Replacing linear two-terminal (a-b)

circuit by its Thevenin equivalent (Cntd)

Thevenin equivalent circuit

VTh - Thevenin voltage

RTh - Thevenin resistance

Procedures to obtain VTh and RTh

Step 1: Priliminary Omitting load resistor

RL (Not applicable if no load resistor)
Step 2: Find RTh setting all independent
sources to zero. Find the resultant
resistance between the marked terminals.
Voltage source s.c
Current sorce o.c
Step 3: Find VTh calculate VTh by returning
all sources back to their original positions.
Find the o.c voltage btw the marked
terminals using the method which takes
least effort.

Example 9

Find the Thevenin equivalent between

terminal a-b. (Ans: VTh=32V, RTh=8)

Example 10

Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit at the terminal ab of the circuit below. (Ans: VTh=-4.8V, RTh=2.4)

Practice Problem 4.8

Use the Thevenins theorem to find the equivalent

circuit to the left of the terminals a-b in the circuit
below. Then find i. (Ans: VTh=6V, RTh=3, i=1.5A)

Circuit Theorem

NORTONs
THEOREM

Nortons Theorem

The purpose of its use is similar to the

Thevenins theorem.
States that A linear two-terminal circuit
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a short circuit current source
through the terminals, IN in parallel with a
resistor RN where RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals
when all independent source are turned
off.

Replacing linear two-terminal (a-b)

circuit by its Norton equivalent

(a) Original Circuit

(b) Norton Equivalent Circuit

Finding Norton current, IN

Procedures to obtain VTh and RTh

Step 1: Priliminary Omitting load resistor

RL (Not applicable if no load resistor)
Step 2: Find RTh setting all independent
sources to zero. Find the resultant
resistance between the marked terminals.
Voltage source s.c
Current sorce o.c
Step 3: Find VTh calculate VTh by returning
all sources back to their original positions.
Find the o.c voltage btw the marked
terminals using the method which takes
least effort.

Procedures to obtain IN and RN

Step 1: Priliminary Omitting load resistor

RL (Not applicable if no load resistor)
Step 2: Find RN setting all independent
sources to zero. Find the resultant
resistance between the marked terminals.
Voltage source s.c
Current sorce o.c
Step 3: Find IN calculate IN by returning all
sources back to their original positions. Find
the o.c s.c current btw the marked
terminals using the method which takes
least effort.

NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

A Norton equivalent circuit consists of an

independent current source in parallel
with the Norton equivalent resistance.
Can be derive from a Thevenin
equivalent circuit simply by making a
source transformation.
Norton current, IN = the short-circuit
current at the terminal of interest.
Norton resistance, RN = Thevenin
resistance, RTh

Series resistors combined, producing the

Thevenin equivalent circuit

a
32V
THEVENIN
EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT

Producing the Norton equivalent circuit

a
4A
NORTON
EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT

8
b

Example 10

Find the Norton Equivalent circuit with respect to

the terminals a-b.

Practice Problem 4.11

Find the Norton equivalent circuit in

Figure below. (Ans: IN=4.5A, RN=3)

Circuit Theorem

THEVENIN & NORTONs

THEOREMS WITH
DEPENDENT SOURCE

Procedures to obtain VTh/IN and RTh/RN

Step 1: Priliminary Omitting load resistor R L

(Not applicable if no load resistor)
Step 2: Find VTh = Vo.c or IN = Is.c using the
method that takes the least effort.
Step 3: Find RTh/RN
Method 1:If circuit contains independent
source.
Rth = RN = Vo.c/Is.c = VTh/IN
Method 2: If circuit contains independent
source and without independent source.

Using Method 2 to find RTh/RN

Turn off all independent sources but dependent

sources left intact because they are controlled by
circuit variables.
Because of the presence of the dependent source,
we excite the circuit with a voltage source or
current source between the terminals.
Set Vo=1V to ease calculation since the circuit is
linear.
Goal? To find io so that RTh=RN=1/io
Alternatively, we may set io=1A.
Goal? To find Vo so that RTh=RN=Vo/1

Illustration of Method 2 to find RTh/RN

Example 11

Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit

for the circuit containing dependent sources below
between terminals a-b. (Ans: VTh=-5V, RTh=100,
IN=-50mA)

Example 12

Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit

for the circuit containing dependent source
below between terminals a-b. (Ans: VTh=20V,
RTh=0.625, IN=32A)

Practice Problem 4.9

Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit in

Figure 4.34 the left of terminals a-b. (Ans:
VTh=5.33V, RTh=0.44)

Practice Problem 4.10

Obtain the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in

Figure 4.36. (Ans: VTh=0V, RTh=-7.5)

Circuit Theorem

MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER

Introduction

Power transfer from source to the load can be

analyzed and discussed from two basic types of
systems:
1. Efficiency eg: power utility systems
concerned with generation, transmission and
distribution of large quantities of electric power.
2. Amount eg. Comm. & instrumentation sys
because in the transmission of info or data via
electric signals, the power available at the
transmitter or detector is limited or small.
At this moment our concern is on the 2nd type of
system that is the amount of maximum power
transfer in purely resistive circuit.

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is

useful in finding the max. power a
linear cct. can deliver to a load.
The entire cct can be replaced by its
Thevenin eq. except for the
adjustable load.

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit used for

maximum power Transfer
VTh and RTh
are fixed

Power delivered
to the load,

p i RL

VTh
RTh RL

RL

(1)

Power delivered to the load as a

function of RL.

Maximum Power Theorem

Maximum Power is transferred to

the load when the load resistance,
equals to the Thevenin resistance as
seen from the load (RL = RTh)

Proving Maximum Power Transfer

Theorem

Differentiate p in Eq.(1) with

respect to RL and set the result
equal to zero,

2 ( RTh RL ) 2 2 RL ( RTh RL )
dp
VTh

4
dRL
( RTh RL )

VTh

( RTh RL 2 RL

0
3
( RTh RL )

(2)

Proving Maximum Power Transfer

Theorem (Cntd)

Implies that,
0 = (RTh + RL -2RL) = (RTh RL)
Yields,
RL = Rth

(3)

Eq (3) gives the maximum power by

showing that d2p/dRL2 < 0.

Maximum Power Formula

Substituting Eq.(3) into (1) to

obtain the maximum power transfer,
2

p max

VTh

4 RT h

(4)

Eq.(4) applies only when RL = RTh.

When RL RTh, compute power from
Eq.(1)

Practice Problem 4.13

Determine the value of RL that will draw the

maximum power from the rest of the circuit.
Calculate the maximum power.
(Ans: 4.22, 2.901W)

Example 13

The variable resistor in the circuit below

is adjusted for maximum power. Find
the value of RL and the maximum
power. (Ans: 5k, 45mW)

Exercise 3

(a)

The load resistance in both circuits below are

adjusted until maximum power is delivered. Find
the power delivered to the loads and the value of
both RL. (Ans: 600, 38.4mW)

Exercise 3
(b)

(Ans: 21.7, 0.8W)