Professional Documents
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Formal System
based on accepted and fixed definitions of data and procedures
(operating with predefined rules).
Formal system
manual
Computer-based
Computer
An electronic machine that accepts input,
processes data, stores data, and produces
output.
Data can be numbers, text, images, graphics,
and sound, etc.
Computer program is a set of instructions.
Without it computer is useless.
Programming languages allow us to write
these instructions (e.g. C, C++, Java, etc).
Computer system
A computer system consists of a computer, peripheral
devices, and software.
The computer itself can take care of the processing
function, but it needs additional components, called
peripherals, to accomplish its input, output and storage
functions.
Examples of peripheral devices are hard disk drive and
printer.
Computer Hardware
Hardware is the physical component of a
computer.
Hardware is the equipment used to perform
the necessary computations.
Examples:
Main memory (RAM, ROM), secondary
memory (hard disk drive, floppy disk drive),
CPU, input devices (keyboard and mouse),
and output devices (monitor and printer).
Buses
Secondary Storage
Magnetic disk
Optical disk
Magnetic tape
Output Devices
Printers
Video display terminals
Plotters
Audio output
Communications
Devices
Primary Storage
Main Memory
Computer memory is a set of storage
locations on the main circuit board
(motherboard).
Four types of memory:
RAM, Virtual memory, ROM, and CMOS
(complementary metal oxide semiconductor
memory)
Virtual Memory
Todays microcomputer software uses space
on computers storage devices to simulate
RAM if more needed.
This extra memory is called virtual memory.
How it works?
Suppose my computer is running a word
processing program that takes up most of
the memory in RAM, but I want to run a
spreadsheet program at the same time.
Read-only memory(ROM)
Another set of electronic circuits on the
motherboard inside the computer.
We cannot increase ROM capacity.
Manufacturer permanently installs ROM.
When computer is on, the sets of
instructions in ROM
checks all the computer systems components to
make sure they are working and
activates the essential software that controls the
processing function.
Internal Components
Tape drive
Another magnetic storage device.
Provides inexpensive archival storage for
large quantities of data.
Too slow to be used for day-to-day tasks.
Used to make backup copies of data stored
on hard disks.
If a hard disk fails, data from the backup
tape can be reloaded on a new hard disk.
CD-RW
One of the problems with a CD-R disk is that
information can only be written onto it once.
A CD-RW disk (rewritable) allows the disk to be
written onto multiple times.
Most new computers come with a CD-RW drive
so that users can store and backup large amounts
of information on a reusable disk.
Primary Storage
1
Arithmetic-Logic Unit
24 + 12 = 36
12 < 24
8
#
T
U
Control Unit
Data Bus
Address Bus
Control Bus
Input Devices
Output Devices
Secondary
Storage
Machine Cycle
The series of operations required to process a single
machine instruction is called the machine cycle.
The machine cycle has two parts: instruction cycle and
execution cycle.
During instruction cycle,
- the control unit retrieves one program instruction from
primary storage and decodes it.
- Places the part of the instruction telling the ALU what to do
next in a special instruction register and
- places the part of the specifying the address of the data to be
used in the operation into an address register.
Machine Cycle
During the execution cycle,
- the control unit locates the required data in primary
storage, places it in a
storage register,
- instructs the ALU to perform the desired operation,
- temporary stores the result of the operation in an accumulator, and
- finally places the result in primary memory
2. Decode instruction
1. Fetch instruction
Decoder
Instruction
register
Address
register
8. Send result to
accumulator
Storage
register
Accumulator
CPU
7. ALU performs
desired operation
6. Command ALU to
perform desired operation
Input Devices
Input device - keyboard, mouse.
When we press a letter or digit key on a key
board, that character is sent to main
memory and displayed on the monitor.
Keyboard consists of three major parts:
main keyboard, keypads, and function keys.
A mouse is a hand-held device used to
select an operation.
Output Devices
Shows the result of processing data.
Output devices - monitor and printer.
Monitor is the TV-like device that displays
the output from a computer.
Printer produces a hard copy of the text or
graphics processed by the computer.
Processing Hardware
The most important computer function is
processing data. To understand this you
need to learn how the computer represents
and stores data.
Computer does not understand human
language because it is an electronic device
that interpret every signal as either on or
off like a light bulb.
1 0
or
One bit
0 0
1 0
0 0
1 0
1 1
1 0
1 0
1 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
Microprocessor
VLSIC technology, with millions of transistors on a single chip,
integrates the computers memory, logic, and control on a single
chip => microprocessor, or computer on a chip.
Computer speed depends on:
Word length => no of bits that can be processed at one time by
the machine. The larger the word length, the greater the speed of
the computer. A 8-bit chip can process 8 bits of information in a
single machine cycle.
Cycle speed => Every event in a computer must be sequenced so
that one step logically follows another. The control unit sets a beat
to the chip. It is measured in megahertz. 1 MHz = millions cycles
per second.
Data bus width => Data bus acts as a high-way between the
CPU, primary storage, and other devices. Data bus width
determines how much data can be moved at one time.
Microprocessor
Computer speed depends on:
Reduced instruction set computing (RISC) => Microprocessor
can be made faster by using RISC technology in its design.
- Some instructions that a computer uses to process data are
actually embedded in the chip circuitry.
- In the reduced instruction set computer, the only most
frequently used instructions are embedded in the chip
circuitry.
- A RISC CPU can execute most instructions in a single
machine cycle and sometimes multiple instructions at the
same time.
- RISC is very useful for scientific and workstation computing
where we perform repetitive operations.
Microcomputers
Microcomputers => Also called personal computers.
These computers are typically used by a single user,
usually at home or at office. They can be of different
shapes and sizes.
A desktop or tower microcomputer costs between $500
and several thousand dollars.
A notebook computer => small and light. Portable
(standard desktop does not have). It can run on power
from an electrical outlet or batteries. It costs between
$800 to several thousand dollars.
Personal digital assistant (PDA) =>more portable than
notebook computer. We can surf the Web and perform
simple tasks. It costs between $200 and $500.
Workstations
Workstations are a special class of
microcomputer designed for individual that
have the power of some minicomputers, but
they fit on a desktop.
Computer hardware companies, such as
Silicon Graphics, Sun Microsystems, and
Hewlett-Packard are leaders for these
computers.
Cost can be between $5,000 and $50,000
Minicomputers
Minicomputers => Somewhat larger than
microcomputers. The computing capability
of a microcomputer may be more than a
minicomputer. Its cost can be between $20,
000 and $250, 000.
Usually a company purchases a
minicomputer when it needs to share large
amount of data among many users.
It can support from four to 200 users
simultaneously.
It has become an integral to many smaller
and midsized organizations.
Mainframes
Larger and powerful than minicomputers.
The mainframe computers can handle many more users
than a minicomputer. It can support thousands of users
simultaneously.
These are used to provide centralized storage,
processing, and management for large amounts of data.
Its cost can be several million dollars.
Large corporations, such as American Airlines, Holiday
Inn use mainframes to perform repetitive tasks.
Supercomputers
The largest and fastest, most powerful, and most
expensive type of computer. It is based on parallel
processing.
Its cost can be many million dollars.
First developed for high volume computing tasks, such
as weather prediction.
They are also used in a large corporation because they
can process tremendous volume of data in a relatively
shorter time compared to other computers.
(microcomputers, minicomputers, and mainframes).
They have traditionally been used in scientific and
military work, but they are also starting to be used in
business.
Parallel Processing
Program
task1
task2
CPU
CPU
task3
task4
CPU
Result
CPU
task5
CPU
Multimedia
Data Communications
The transmission of text, numeric, voice, or video data
from one machine to another is called data
communications.
For example, Send an electronic mail to your friends
around the globe.
The four essential components of data communications
are a sender, a receiver, a channel, and a protocol.
Sender => The computer that originates the message is
called the sender.
Receiver => The computer at the messages destination
is called the receiver.
Data Communications
Channel => The message needs some kind of medium
to be transmitted. This medium is called channel. For
example, telephone or coaxial cable, microwave signal,
or optical fibers
Protocol => The rules that establish an orderly transfer
of data between the sender and the receiver are called
protocols.
Computer software and hardware establish these
protocols at the beginning of the transmission, and both
computers have to follow the protocols to ensure
accurate transfer of data.
Networks
Networks
Telecommunications
Allows us to send and receive data over telephone
lines.
A modem connects a computer to a telephone jack.
At the sending site, modem converts the digital
signal from a computer into analog (continuous
wave) signals (sound waves) that can traverse
ordinary phone lines (modulation).
At the receiving site, a second modem converts
the analog signals back into digital signals
(demodulation).
Telecommunications
Internet
The internet was originally developed for the government
to connect the researchers around the world to share data.
Today, the internet is the largest network in the world that
connects millions of people in almost 200 countries.
The use of internet:
electronic mail => This is the capability to send a message
from one users computer to another users computer
where it is stored until the receiver opens it. Message
passes through electronic links called gateways.
World Wide Web (Web) => Web is a huge database of
information that is stored on the network servers in places
that allow public access. The information is stored as text
files called web pages.
Internet
Hyperlinks => a place on a computer screen that is
programmed to connect to a particular file on the same
network server, or on a network v=server on the other
side of the globe.
Web browsing => communication software that help us
navigate the WWW is called web browsing software or
web browser.