EE 369

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Lecture 10
Transformers, Load & Generator
Models, YBus
Tom Overbye and Ross Baldick

Announcements
Homework 7 is 5.8, 5.15, 5.17, 5.24,
5.27, 5.28, 5.29, 5.34, 5.37, 5.38,
5.43, 5.45; due 10/22.
Homework 8 is 3.1, 3.3, 3.4, 3.7, 3.8,
3.9, 3.10, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14, 3.16,
3.18; due 10/29.
Homework 9 is 3.20, 3.23, 3.25, 3.27,
3.28, 3.29, 3.35, 3.38, 3.39, 3.41,
3.44, 3.47; due 11/5.
Start reading Chapter 6 for lectures
2

Load Tap Changing

Transformers

LTC transformers have tap ratios that

can be varied to regulate bus voltages.
The typical range of variation is 10%
from the nominal values, usually in 33
discrete steps (0.0625% per step).
Because tap changing is a mechanical
process, LTC transformers usually have
a 30 second deadband to avoid
repeated changes to minimize wear and
tear.
Unbalanced tap positions can cause
circulating VArs; that is, reactive
3

Phase Shifting Transformers

Phase shifting transformers are used
to control the phase angle across the
transformer.
Since power flow through the
transformer depends upon phase
angle, this allows the transformer to
regulate the power flow through the
transformer.
Phase shifters can be used to
prevent inadvertent "loop flow" and
4

Phase Shifting Transformer

Picture
Costs about $7 million,
weighs about 1.2
million pounds

230 kV 800 MVA Phase Shifting

Transformer During factory
testing
Source: Tom Ernst, Minnesota Power
5

Autotransformers
Autotransformers are transformers in
which the primary and secondary
windings are coupled magnetically and
electrically.
This results in lower cost, and smaller
size and weight.
The key disadvantage is loss of
electrical isolation between the voltage
levels. This can be an important safety
consideration when a is large. For
example in stepping down 7160/240 V
6

Load Models
Ultimate goal is to supply loads with
electricity at constant frequency and
voltage.
Electrical characteristics of individual
loads matter, but usually they can only
be estimated
actual loads are constantly changing,
consisting of a large number of individual
devices,
only limited network observability of load
characteristics

Aggregate models are typically used

for analysis
7

Generator Models
Engineering models depend on the
application.
Generators are usually synchronous
machines:
important exception is case of wind
generators,

For generators we will use two

different models:
(in 369) a steady-state model, treating the
generator as a constant power source
operating at a fixed voltage; this model
will be used for power flow and economic
analysis.
8

Power Flow Analysis

We now have the necessary models to
start to develop the power system
analysis tools.
The most common power system
analysis tool is the power flow (also
known sometimes as the load flow):
power flow determines how the power flows
in a network
also used to determine all bus voltages and
all currents,
because of constant power models,
power
9

Linear versus Nonlinear

Systems
A function H is linear if
H(1 1 + 2 2) = 1H( 1) +
2H( 2)
That is:
1)the output is proportional to the
input
2)the principle of superposition holds
Linear Example: y = H(x) = c x
y = c(x1+x2) = cx1 + c x2
10

Linear Power System

Elements

Resistors, inductors, capacitors, independent

voltage sources, and current sources are linear
circuit elements:
1
V R I V j L I V
I
jC
Such systems may be analyzed by superposition.

11

Nonlinear Power System

Elements

Constant power loads and generator

injections are nonlinear and hence
systems with these elements cannot
be analyzed (exactly) by
superposition.

Nonlinear problems can be very difficult to solve,

12
and usually require an iterative approach.

Nonlinear Systems May

Have Multiple Solutions or
No Solution

Example 1: x2 - 2 = 0 has solutions x

= 1.414
Example2 2: x2 + 2 = 0 has no
real
2
f(x)
=
x
2
f(x)
=
x
+2
solution

two solutions where f(x) = 0

no solution to f(x) = 0
13

Multiple Solution Example 3

The dc system shown below has two

solutions for a value of load
resistance that results in 18 W
dissipation in the load:

The equation we're solving is:

That is, the 18 watt

load is an unknown
resistive load RLoad

A different
2
problem:
9 volts
2
I RLoad
RLoad 18 watts

What is the
1+RLoad
resistance to
One solution is RLoad 2
achieve maximum
Other solution is RLoad 0.5
PLoad14?

Bus Admittance Matrix or

Ybus
First step in solving the power flow is
to create what is known as the bus
admittance matrix, often called the
Ybus.
The Ybus gives the relationships
between all the bus current injections,
I, and all the bus voltages, V, I = Ybus
V
The Ybus is developed by applying KCL
at each bus in the system to relate the
15

Ybus Example

Determine the bus admittance matrix for the netw

shown below, assuming the current injection at ea
bus i is Ii = IGi - IDi where IGi is the current injection
into the bus from the generator and IDi is the curre
flowing into the load.

16

Ybus Example, contd

By KCL at bus 1 we have
I1 @ I G1 I D1
I1 I12 I13

V1 V2 V1 V3

ZA
ZB

I1 (V1 V2 )YA (V1 V3 )YB

1
(with Y j )
Zj

(YA YB )V1 YA V2 YB V3
Similarly
I 2 I 21 I 23 I 24
YA V1 (YA YC YD )V2 YC V173 YD V4

Ybus Example, contd

We can get similar relationships for buses 3 and 4

The results can then be expressed in matrix form
I Ybus V

Y A
YB
V1
I1
Y A YB
0
I

Y
Y

Y
V
A
A
C
D
C
2
2
D

YB
YC
YB YC
V3
I 3

0
I

Y
0
Y
V
4

D
D
4
For a system with n buses, Ybus is an n by n
symmetric matrix (i.e., one where Ybuskl = Ybuslk).
From now on, we will mostly write Y for Ybus,
18
but be careful to distinguish Ykl from line
admittance

Ybus General Form

The diagonal terms, Ykk, are the self
admittance terms, equal to the sum of
the admittances of all devices incident
to bus k.
The off-diagonal terms, Ykl, are equal to
the negative of the admittance joining
the two buses.
With large systems Ybus is a sparse
matrix (that is, most entries are zero):
sparsity is key to efficient numerical
19

Modeling Shunts in the Ybus

Ykc
Since I ij (Vi V j )Yk Vi
2
Ykc
Yii
Yk
2
1
1
Rk jX k Rk jX k
Note Yk

2
Z k Rk jX k Rk jX k Rk X k2
Yiifrom other lines

20

Two Bus System Example

Yc
(V1 V2 )
1
1
I1
V1 , where
12 j16.
Z
2
Z 0.03 j 0.04
I1
I
2

12 j15.9 12 j16

12

j
16
12

j
15.9

V1
V
2

21

Using the Ybus

If the voltages are known then we can solve for
the current injections:
Ybus V I
If the current injections are known then we can
solve for the voltages:
1
Ybus
I V Z bus I
1
where Z bus =Ybus
is the bus impedance matrix.

22

Solving for Bus Currents

For example, in previous case assume:
1.0
V
.

0.8 j 0.2
Then

1.0
5.60 j 0.70
12 j15.9 12 j16

12 j16 12 j15.9 0.8 j 0.2

5.58 j 0.88

Therefore the power injected at bus 1 is:

S1 V1 I1* 1.0 (5.60 j 0.70) 5.60 j 0.70
S2 V2 I 2* (0.8 j 0.2) ( 5.58 j 0.88) 4.64 j 0.41
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Solving for Bus Voltages

As another example, in previous case assume
5.0
I
.

4.8
Then

0.0738 j 0.902
12 j15.9 12 j16 5.0

12 j16 12 j15.9 4.8

0.0738 j1.098

Therefore the power injected is

S1 V1 I1* (0.0738 j 0.902) 5 0.37 j 4.51
S2 V2 I 2* ( 0.0738 j1.098) ( 4.8) 0.35 j5.27
24

Power Flow Analysis

When analyzing power systems we
know neither the complex bus
voltages nor the complex current
injections.
Rather, we know the complex
power being consumed by the load,
and the power being injected by the
generators and their voltage
magnitudes.
Therefore we can not directly use
25

Power Balance Equations

From KCL we know at each bus i in an n bus system
the current injection, I i , must be equal to the current
that flows into the network
I i I Gi I Di

Iik

k 1

Since I = Ybus V we also know

I i I Gi I Di

YikVk

k 1

The network power injection is then Si Vi I i*

26

Power Balance Equations,

contd
*
n
n
Si

*
Vi I i

Vi

YikVk

* *
Vi YikVk
k 1

k 1

This is an equation with complex numbers.

Sometimes we would like an equivalent set of real
power equations. These can be derived by defining
Yik @ Gik jBik
Vi @ Vi e ji Vi i

ik @ i k
Recall e j cos j sin
27

Real Power Balance

Equations n
n

Si Pi jQi Vi Yik*Vk* Vi Vk e jik (Gik jBik )

k 1

Vi Vk

k 1

k 1

(cos ik j sin ik )(Gik jBik )

Resolving into the real and imaginary parts

Pi
Qi

Vi Vk (Gik cosik Bik sinik ) PGi PDi

k 1
n

Vi Vk (Gik sinik Bik cosik ) QGi QDi

k 1

28

Power Flow Requires Iterative

Solution
In the power flow we assume we know Si and the
Ybus . We would like to solve for the values Vi .
The difficulty is that the following nonlinear
equation (solve for the values Vi given Si )
has no closed form solution:

* *
Y
V

V
Y
ik k
i ikVk
k 1

k 1
Rather, we must pursue an iterative approach.

Si Vi I i*

Vi

29

Gauss (or Jacobi) Iteration

There are a number of different iterative methods

we can use. We'll consider two: Gauss and Newton.

With the Gauss method we need to rewrite our
equation in an implicit form: x h( x ).
Our goal is to find x that satisfies this equation.
To seek a solution we first make an initial guess of x,
which we call x (0) ,and then iteratively plug into the righthand side to evaluate an updated guess x ( v 1) h( x ( v ) ),
until we are close to a "fixed point," x, such that
x h ( x ).
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Gauss Example: To solve x x 1 0, rearrange in the form

x h ( x ), where h( x ) 1 x. Iteration is: x ( v 1) 1 x ( v ) .
That is, plug current iterate x ( v ) into: 1 x ( v ) ; the answer is
the next iterate x ( v 1) ; repeat. Matlab code: x=x0; x=1+sqrt(x).
Start at = 0, arbitrarily guess x (0) 1 and iterate:

0
1
2
3
4

x(v)
1
2
2.41421
2.55538
2.59805

5
6
7
8
9

x(v)
2.61185
2.61612
2.61744
2.61785
2.6179831

Stopping Criteria
A key problem to address is when to stop the
iteration. With the Gauss iteration we stop when
with x ( v ) @x ( v 1) x ( v )

x ( v )

If x is a scalar this is clear, but if x is a vector we

need to generalize the absolute value by using a norm
x ( v )
Two common norms are the Euclidean & infinity
x 2

2
(

x
)
i
i 1

x max i xi
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Gauss Power Flow

We first need to put the equation in the appropriate form,

with power flow expressed in the form V h(V ) :
Si Vi I i*
*
Si

Si*

*
Vi

*
Vi I i
n

* *
Y
V

V
Y
ik k
i ikVk
k 1

k 1

Vi

Vi

YikVk

k 1

YikVk

k 1

YiiVi

k 1,k i

1 S*i
Vi
* YikVk .

Yii V
k

1,
k

YikVk

33

Gauss Power Flow

1 S*i
We define hi (V ) by: hi (V ) * YikVk ,

Yii V
k

1,
k

Collect the entries hi (V ) together to form the vector h(V ).

Then we have expressed the power flow equations in
the form: V h(V ). (There are other ways we can express
the power flow equations in this form.)
Start with an initial guess V (0) and then update according to:
V (1) h (V (0) ),
V

(2)

h(V

(1)

),...

Continue until stopping criterion satisfied: V ( 1) V ( ) .

34