UNIT-I

ENVIRONMENTAL
HAZARDS & DISASTERS

By
AnveshKumar Mupparaju

Syllabus
Meaning of
Environmental Hazard
Environmental Disaster
Environmental Stress

Concept of
Environmental Hazard
Environmental Disaster
Environmental Stress

Different Approaches & Relation with Human Ecology

Landscape approach
Ecosystem Approach
Perception Approach

Human Ecology & Its Application in Geographical

Researches

Basic Definitions
Hazard is any biological, chemical, mechanical, environmental or physical
agent that is reasonably likely to cause harm or damage to humans, other
organisms, or the environment in the absence of its control. This can
include, but is not limited to: electricity, microbial pathogens, motor
vehicles, nuclear power plants, pesticides, vaccines, and X-rays.
Vulnerability refers to the inability (of a system or a unit) to withstand the
effects of a hostile environment. A window of vulnerability (WoV) is a
time frame within which defensive measures are diminished, compromised
or lacking.
Disaster is a natural or man-made hazard that has come to fruition,
resulting in an event of substantial extent causing significant physical
damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment.
Catastrophe: When a natural event kills or injures large numbers of people
or causes extensive property damage, it is called a catastrophe.

Environmental Hazard
'Environmental hazard' is the state of events which has the potential to
threaten the surrounding natural environment and adversely affect people's
health. This term incorporates topics like pollution and natural disasters
such as storms and earthquakes.
Examples: E-waste, Explosive material, Floods, Fog, Food poisoning,
Fungicides, Heavy metals, Herbicides, Hormones in animals destined for
human consumption, Lead in paint, Light pollution, Lighting, Lightning,
Malaria, Marine debris, mercury, Molds, Mutagens, Noise pollution,
Pandemics,
Pathogens, Pesticides, Pollen for allergic people,
Polychlorinated biphenyls, Quicksand, Rabies, Radon and other natural
sources of radioactivity, Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Sick
building syndrome, Soil pollution, Tobacco smoking, Toxic waste,
Ultraviolet light, vibration, Wildfire and X-rays.

Environmental Hazard
Classification of Hazards:
There are many different ways of classifying hazards. One is to
consider the extent to which hazards are natural.
1. Natural hazards such as earthquakes or floods arise from purely natural
processes in the environment.
2. Quasi-natural hazards such as smog or desertification arise through the
interaction of natural processes and human activities.
3. Man-made hazards such as the toxicity of pesticides to fauna, accidental
release of chemicals or radiation from a nuclear plant. These arise directly
as a result of human activities.

Environmental Hazard
Classification of Hazards: (Contd..)
A typology for classification of environmental hazard based on Hewitt and Burton (1971)
would appear as follows.

1. Atmospheric

Excess rainfall
Freezing rain (glaze)
Hail
Heavy snowfalls
High wind speeds
Extreme temperatures
Hurricanes
Glaze storms
Thunderstorms
Blizzards
Tornadoes

Environmental Hazard
2. Hydrologic

Floods - river and coastal

Wave action
Drought
Rapid glacier advance

3. Geologic
Mass-movement

Landslides
Mudslides
Avalanches

Earthquake
Volcanic eruption
Rapid sediment movement

Environmental Hazard
4. Biologic

Epidemic in humans
Epidemic in plants
Epidemic in animals
Locusts

5. Technologic

Transport accidents
Industrial explosions and fires
Accidental release of toxic chemicals
Nuclear accidents
Collapse of public buildings

Environmental Hazard
Hazard Event:
It is the physical parameter of the hazard event that causes the
harm.
Environmental events become hazards once they threaten to
affect society and/or the environment adversely. A physical
event, such as a volcanic eruption, that does not affect human beings
is a natural phenomenon but not a natural hazard. A natural
phenomenon that occurs in a populated area is a hazardous event. A
hazardous event that causes unacceptably large numbers of
fatalities and/or overwhelming property damage is a natural
disaster. In areas where there are no human interests, natural
phenomena do not constitute hazards nor do they result in disasters.

Environmental Hazard
Controllable Hazards vs. Immutable Hazards
For some types of hazards the actual dimensions of the occurrence
may be altered if appropriate measures are taken. For others, no
known technology can effectively alter the occurrence itself. For
example, construction of levees on both sides of a stream can reduce
the extent of inundations, but nothing can moderate the ground
shaking produced by an earthquake.

Environmental Hazard
Other Terminology:
Secondary hazards are hazards that follow as a result of other hazard
events. Hazards secondary to an earthquake may be listed as follows to
illustrate the concept. Primary hazard is the earthquake. Secondary hazards
are,

Building collapse
Dam failure
Fire
Hazardous material spill
Interruption of power/ water supply/ communication/ transportation/ waste disposal
Landslide
Soil liquefaction
Tsunami (tidal wave)
Water pollution

Environmental Hazard
Other Terminology: (Contd)
Chronic hazards: A group of hazards that do not stem from one event
but arise from continuous conditions (e.g., famine, resource degradation,
pollution, and large-scale toxic contamination), which accumulate over
time.
Spatial dispersion: This refers to the pattern of distribution of a hazard
over the geographic area in which the hazard can occur.
Temporal spacing: Refers to the sequencing and seasonality of events.
Some events are quite random (volcanoes) while others have seasons
(hurricanes, tropical cyclones, river floods).
Hazardscape: It is the landscape of many hazards. The interaction
among nature, society, and technology at a variety of spatial scales
creates a mosaic of risks that affect places and the people who live there.
The term is normally used in reference to a specific place or region.

Environmental Hazard
Other Terminology: (Contd)
Rate of onset: The speed of onset of a hazard is an important
variable since it conditions warning time. At one extreme,
earthquake, landslides, and flash floods give virtually no warning.
Less extreme are tsunamis, which typically have warning periods of
minutes or hours, and hurricanes and floods, where the likelihood of
occurrence is known for several hours or days in advance.
Volcanoes can erupt suddenly and surprisingly, but usually give
indications of an eruption weeks or months in advance. Other
hazards such as drought, desertification, and subsidence act slowly
over a period of months or years. Hazards such as
erosion/sedimentation have varying lead times: damage may occur
suddenly as the result of a storm or may develop over many years.

Environmental Hazard
Hazard Identification :

Could this hazard affect the area under consideration?

Is this hazard a significant threat there?
How often does it pose a threat? E.g. Once every 5 years? 10years?
What is a close estimate of the population size that could be
affected by this hazard event? Give a rating. Very high? High?
Medium? Low?
What is the expected duration of the hazard?
What is the expected damage from the hazard event? Give a rating.
Very high? High? Medium? Low?
What is the expected intensity of impact expected? Give a rating.
Very high? High? Medium? Low?
How predictable is the threat?
Can the effect of the event be reduced?

Environmental Hazard
Hazard Assessment:
Hazard Assessment is the process of estimating, for defined areas, the
probabilities of the occurrence of potentially-damaging phenomenon of
given magnitude within a specified period of time.\

Data collection :
Local hazards - Location & Probability
The extent to which they threaten local populations Severity
Ease with which their effects can be averted Manageability
The severity of a natural hazard is quantified in terms of the
magnitude of occurrence, which is an event parameter. It can also be
done in terms of the effect of the occurrence at a particular location.
This is called a site parameter. Both parameters may be combined in
certain situations. Parameters for selected hazards are listed below.

Environmental Hazard

Environmental Hazard
Hazard Assessment Approaches:
The process of collecting this information is called hazard
assessment. These studies rely heavily on
I. Available scientific information, including geologic,
geomorphic, and soil maps; climate and hydrological data; and
topographic maps, aerial photographs, and satellite imagery.
II. Historical information, both written reports and oral accounts
from long-term residents. These may include myths and
legends.
For assessment of most natural phenomenon, one cannot expect
complete data required to carry out a comprehensive assessment.
Depending on the situation, various methods are used with obvious
variations in the degree of accuracy.

Environmental Hazard
Quantitative approach
Here mathematical functions are used to denote relationships between
variable considered to quantify the hazard. Numerical data can be fed in to
assess the impact of the hazard event.
An example is the probable flood that a particular rainfall could cause
within a watershed area. Flood dimensions such as depth of flood and area
of inundation would depend on the volume of water that flows into the
stream. Surface run-off, soil permeability, vegetation cover etc would
determine this. The empirical data collected from historical records as well
as theoretical data from basic principles of physics are used to derive the
relationship between variables.
The mathematical expression so derived could be used to forecast
future events.
However, quantitative assessment may not be possible for all hazard
events.

Environmental Hazard
Qualitative approach
This method uses ranking such as high, moderate and low
to assess a hazard event. Where there is a lack of sufficient data
for quantitative evaluation, or where certain variables cannot be
expressed numerically, this qualitative ranking may be
appropriate to take hazard mitigation decisions.
Deterministic approach
A past event is selected and associated characteristics and the
consequences are described. Past impact data can be combined
with current conditions and possible exposure levels and impact.
This would be adequate to visualize the recurrence of an event
for community awareness but leaves room for inaccuracies.

Environmental Hazard
Probabilistic approach
After identifying the hazards that affect the planning area and
assessment of the impacts from those hazards, a probability
analysis is undertaken. It provides an estimate of the probability
of each hazard affecting an area or region.
Probability for each hazard may be categorized as high,
moderate or low.
Probability of occurrence can be calculated through research
on past events.

Environmental Hazard
The Outcome
The outcome is natural hazards information, which denotes
the presence and effect of natural phenomena.
Hazard assessment is the first step for hazard mitigation
planning. It prioritizes hazards so that a community or a
government may use discretion to plan and implement hazard
mitigation action. This information should ideally include the
location, severity, frequency, and probability of occurrence of a
hazardous event. Location is the easiest for planners to find; the
rest can often be obtained from sectoral agencies, natural hazard
research and monitoring centres and integrated development
planning studies.

Environmental Hazard
The Outcome (Contd)
It could have information on natural ecosystems (e.g., slopes
and slope stability, river flow capacity, vegetation cover), which
provides the basis for estimating the effect natural hazards can
have on these systems. Change in the ecosystem may create,
modify, accelerate, and/or retard the occurrence of a natural
event. Large-scale data describing lifeline infrastructure and
human settlements for example, are critical elements for
preparing vulnerability assessments and for initiating disaster
preparedness and response activities.

Environmental Hazard
Hazard Mapping
This is the process of establishing geographically where and
to what extent particular phenomenon is likely to pose a threat to
people, property, infrastructure and economic activities.
Probability of hazard occurrence varies from place to place.
The use of mapping to synthesize data on natural hazards and
to combine these with socioeconomic data facilitates analysis. It
improves communications among participants in the hazard
management process and between planners and decision-makers.
Two important techniques in use are
I. Multiple hazard mapping and
II.Critical facilities mapping

Environmental Hazard
Multiple Hazard Mapping (MHM)
This is usually carried out with new development in mind. Valuable
information on individual natural hazards in a study area may appear
on maps with varying scales, coverage, and detail, but these maps are
difficult to use in risk analyses due to the inability to conveniently
overlay them on each other for study. Information from several of them
can be combined in a single map to give a composite picture of the
magnitude, frequency, and area of effect of all the natural hazards.
Regional scale hazard mapping uses 1:100,000 to 1:250,000. These are
useful during planning stages of regional development.
Urban land use planners may need medium scale hazard maps of 1:
10,000 to 1:25,000.
Site investigation for infrastructure projects may require large scale
hazard maps of 1:1,000 to 1:5,000.

Environmental Hazard
Multiple Hazard Mapping (MHM) (Contd)
The scale used for an MHM depends on the hazard information to be
shown, availability of funds and the scale of the base map. If a choice
of scales is available, then the following factors should be considered:
Number of hazards to be shown.

Hazard elements to be shown.

Range of relative severity of hazards to be shown.
Area to be covered.
Proposed uses of the map.

Environmental Hazard
Multiple Hazard Mapping (MHM) (Contd)
The multiple hazard map (MHM; also called a composite,
synthesis, or overlay map) is an excellent tool for fomenting an
awareness of natural hazards and for analysing vulnerability and risk,
especially when combined with the mapping of critical facilities.
Characteristics of the natural phenomena and their possible impacts can
be synthesized from different sources and placed on a single map.
It can call attention to hazards that may trigger others (as earthquakes
or volcanic eruptions trigger landslides) or exacerbate their effects.
A more precise view of the effects of natural phenomena on a
particular area can be obtained. Common mitigation techniques can be
recommended for the same portion of the study area.
Sub-areas requiring more information, additional assessments, or
specific hazard-reduction techniques can be identified.
Land-use decisions can be based on all hazard considerations
simultaneously.

Environmental Hazard
Critical Facilities Mapping (CFM)
This is carried out for development within existing infrastructure in mind.
The term "critical facilities" means all man-made structures or other
improvements whose function, size, service area, or uniqueness gives them the
potential to cause serious bodily harm, extensive property damage, or
disruption of vital socioeconomic activities if they are destroyed or damaged
or if their services are repeatedly interrupted.
The primary purpose of a critical facilities map (CFM) is to convey
clearly and accurately to planners and decision-makers the location, capacity,
and service area of critical facilities. An extensive number of such facilities
can be presented at the same time. Also, when combined with a multiple
hazard map, a CFM can show which areas require more information, which
ones require different hazard reduction techniques, and which need immediate
attention when a hazardous event occurs.

Environmental Hazard
Critical Facilities Mapping (CFM) (Contd)
Some of the benefits of a CFM are:
The uniqueness of service of facilities in the area (or lack of it) is made
clear.
Facilities that may require upgrading and expansion are identified.
The impact of potential development on existing infrastructure can be
assessed before a project is implemented.
Any need for more (or better) hazard assessment becomes apparent.

Environmental Disaster
Environmental Disaster is a disaster to the natural environment due to
human activity, which distinguishes it from the concept of a natural
disaster. It is also distinct from intentional acts of war such as nuclear
bombings.
In this case, the impact of humans' alteration of the ecosystem has led
to widespread and/or long-lasting consequences. It can include the deaths
of animals (including humans) and plants, or severe disruption of human
life, possibly requiring migration. Environmental disasters can have an
effect on agriculture, biodiversity, the economy and human health. The
causes include pollution, depletion of natural resources, industrial activity
or agriculture.

Environmental Disaster
Bhopal disaster, 1984 - Release of methyl isocyanate gas and other chemicals
some estimate 8,000 people died within two weeks. A government affidavit in
2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries including 38,478 temporary
partial and approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries.
Chernobyl disaster, 1986 - The official Soviet count of 31 deaths has been
disputed. An UNSCEAR report places the total confirmed deaths from
radiation at 64 as of 2008. The eventual death toll could reach 4,000. Some 50
emergency workers died of acute radiation syndrome, nine children died of
thyroid cancer and an estimated total of 3940 died from radiation-induced
cancer and leukemia.
Exxon Valdez oil spill, 1989 - spilled 260750 thousand barrels (41,000
119,000 m3) of crude oil.
Prestige oil spill, 2002 - spilled over 20 million US gallons (76,000 m3) of
two different grades of heavy fuel oil.

Environmental Disaster
Prudhoe Bay oil spill, 2006 - spilled up to 267,000 US gallons (1,010 m3;
6,400 bbl).
Deepwater Horizon oil spill, 2010 - An explosion killed 11 men working
on the platform and injured 17 others. The gushing wellhead was capped,
after it had released about 4.9 million barrels (780,000 m3) of crude oil.
Hanford Nuclear, 1986 The U.S. government declassifies 19,000 pages
of documents indicating that between 1946 and 1986, the Hanford Site
near Richland, Washington, released thousands of US gallons of
radioactive liquids. Radioactive waste was both released into the air and
flowed into the Columbia River (which flows to the ocean). In 2014, the
Hanford legacy continues with billions of dollars spent annually in a
seemingly endless cleanup of leaking underground storage tanks.

Environmental Disaster
Classification:
Natural (35%)
Meteorological
Topographical
Environmental

Examples
Earthquakes.
Tsunamis.
Cyclones.
Floods.
Cloud bursts.
Dam failures/dam bursts
Avalanches.
Landslides & mud flow.
Volcanoes

Environmental Disaster
Disaster Management Process:
A progressive strategy for managing disasters ensures that loss of life and
property is reduced in a disaster event.
Phases of disaster management prepare communities with the knowledge
and resources to protect themselves from harm and to manage the response
and recovery stages.
1. Prevention
2. Preparedness
3. Response
4. Recovery

Environmental Disaster
Disaster Management Process: (Contd)
Prevention and preparedness identifies potential risks and the
actions that can be taken before a disaster event in order to reduce its
impact.

Response to a disaster event must be swift and effective to combat

the disaster, to assist those affected by it and to make the area safe.

While the effects of a disaster can be sudden, the recovery period

can place significant long-term strain on a community.

A disaster stricken community needs assistance to regain a proper

level of functioning following a disaster.

Environmental Disaster
Disaster Management Process: (Contd)
Prevention and Preparedness :Prevention includes the
identification of hazards, the assessment of threats to life and
property, and the taking of measures to reduce potential loss of
life and property damage, sometimes known as disaster
mitigation. Mitigation measures range from:
community awareness campaigns to increase knowledge of
how to deal with disaster situations.
land use planning and design decisions to stop development
which may be dangerous in the event of a disaster
capital works such as levee bank construction to reduce the
impacts of flooding.

Environmental Disaster
Disaster Management Process: (Contd)
Prevention & Preparedness (Contd)
All mitigation measures are important as they not only reduce the cost of
disasters to the community, but they save lives.
Disaster managers at all levels are responsible for using a risk
management process to identify prevention and mitigation options.
Preparedness includes arrangements or plans to deal with a disaster or the
effects of a disaster. Disaster District and Local Government Plans are
developed to provide for the activation of the disaster management system
and provision of resources to be used in case of a disaster.

Environmental Disaster
Disaster Management Process: (Contd)
Response & Recovery
As opposed to disaster prevention and preparedness, response
and recovery are undertaken during a disaster and after it occurs.
Response is the process of combating a disaster and providing
assistance to people affected by a disaster. The aim of response
operations is to save lives, protect property and make an affected
area safe. This is done by a number of organisations, including
Local Government Counter Disaster Committees, State
Emergency Service units, Police, Fire, Ambulance and Defence.
The Disaster Management Arrangements ensures support and
assistance are available as required by disaster stricken
communities.

Environmental Disaster
Disaster Management Process: (Contd)
Response & Recovery (Contd)
Recovery is the process by which an affected community is assisted in
regaining a proper level of functioning following a disaster. It comprises initial
recovery, which satisfies personal and community needs and restores services
to the level where local government and the normal responsible agencies can
manage the continuing process. It also includes long term recovery,
reconstruction and rehabilitation measures. The Natural Disaster Relief and
Recovery Arrangements (NDRRA), administered by the Federal Government,
provide funding assistance to States and Territories aimed at alleviating the
financial burden associated with the provision of natural disaster relief
payments and infrastructure restoration.

Environmental Disaster
Man Made (65%)
Technological
Industrial Accidents
Security Related

Examples
Air, road & rail accidents.
Nuclear, chemical & biological disasters.
Wars.
Sabotage.
Riots.
Industrial accidents.

Environmental Stress
Environmental stress refers to physical, chemical, and biological
constraints on the productivity of species and on the development of
ecosystems. When the exposure to environmental stressors increases or
decreases in intensity, ecological responses result. Stressors can be natural
environmental factors, or they may result from the activities of humans.
Some environmental stressors exert a relatively local influence, while
others are regional or global in their scope. Stressors are challenges to the
integrity of ecosystems and to the quality of the environment.
Species and ecosystems have some capacity to tolerate changes in the
intensity of environmental stressors. This is known as resistance, but there
are limits to this attribute, which represent thresholds of tolerance. When
these thresholds are exceeded by further increases in the intensity of
environmental stress, substantial ecological changes are caused.

Environmental Stress
Environmental stressors can be grouped into the following categories:
1. Physical stress refers to brief but intense exposures to kinetic energy. This
is a type of ecological disturbance because of its acute, episodic nature.
Examples include volcanic eruptions, windstorms, and explosions.
2. Wildfire is also a disturbance, during which much of the biomass of an
ecosystem is combusted, and the dominant species may be killed.
3. Pollution occurs when chemicals are present in concentrations large
enough to affect organisms and thereby cause ecological changes. Toxic
pollution can be caused by gases such as sulfur dioxide and ozone, by
elements such as arsenic, lead, and mercury, and by pesticides such as
DDT. Inputs of nutrients such as phosphate and nitrate can influence
productivity and other ecological processes, causing a type of pollution
known as eutrophication.

Environmental Stress
Environmental stressors can be grouped into the following categories: (Contd.)

4.

5.

6.

Thermal stress occurs when releases of heat influence ecosystems, as

happens in the vicinity of natural hot-water vents on the ocean floor, and
near industrial discharges of heated water.
Radiation stress is associated with excessive loads of ionizing energy.
This can occur on mountain tops where there are intense exposures to
ultraviolet radiation, and in places where there are exposures to
radioactive materials.
Climatic stress is associated with excessive or insufficient regimes of
temperature, moisture, solar radiation, and combinations of these. Tundra
and deserts are examples of climatically stressed ecosystems, while
tropical rainforests occur under a relatively benign climatic regime.

Environmental Stress
Environmental stressors can be grouped into the following categories: (Contd.)

7.

Biological stresses are associated with the diverse interactions that occur
among organisms of the same or different species. Biological stresses can
result from competition, herbivory, predation, parasitism, and disease. The
harvesting and management of species and ecosystems by humans is a
type of biological stress. The introduction of invasive, non-native species
may be regarded as a type of biological pollution.

Environmental Stress
Various types of ecological responses occur when the intensity of
environmental stress causes significant changes. For example, disruption of
an ecosystem by an intense disturbance causes mortality of organisms and
other ecological damage, followed by recovery through succession.
More permanent ecological adjustments occur in response to longer-term
increases in the intensity of environmental stress, associated perhaps with
chronic pollution or climate change. The resulting effects can include
reductions in the abundance of vulnerable species, their elimination from
sites stressed over the longer term, and replacement by species that are more
tolerant of the changed environmental conditions. Other commonly observed
responses to longer-term increases in stress include a simplification of
species richness and decreased rates of productivity, decomposition, and
nutrient cycling. In total, these changes represent a longer-term change in the
character of the ecosystem, or an ecological conversion.

Human Ecology & Relation With Different

Approaches
Human Ecology:
Ecology (from Greek: , "house"; -, "study of") is the
scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms
and their environment. It is an interdisciplinary field that
includes biology, geography and Earth science.
Human ecology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary
study of the relationship between humans and their natural,
social, and built environments.

Human Ecology & Relation With Different

Approaches

Landscape Approach:
Landscape ecology, as the name implies, is the study of
landscapes; specifically, the composition, structure and function
of landscapes. But whats a landscape? A landscape is simply
an area of land (at any scale) containing an interesting pattern
that affects and is affected by an ecological process of interest.
Landscape ecology, then, involves the study of these landscape
patterns, the interactions among the elements of this pattern, and
how these patterns and interactions change over time. In
addition, landscape ecology involves the application of these
principles in the formulation and solving of real-world problems.

Human Ecology & Relation With Different

Approaches

Human Ecology & Relation With Different

Approaches
1. Spatial Heterogeneity:
Landscape ecology might be defined best by its focus on spatial
heterogeneity and pattern: how to characterize it, where it comes
from, how it changes through time, why it matters, and how humans
manage it.

Human Ecology & Relation With Different

Approaches
2. Broad Spatial Extents:
Landscape ecology is distinguished by its focus on broader spatial
extents than those traditionally studied in ecology. This stems from
the anthropocentric origins of the discipline. Initial impetus for the
discipline came from the geographers aerial view of the
environment, for example, the patterns in the environment visible
from an aerial photograph. The focus on large geographic areas is
consistent with how humans typically see the worldthrough a
coarse lens. However, modern landscape ecology does not define,
a priori, specific scales that may be universally applied; rather, the
emphasis is to identify scales that best characterize relationships
between spatial heterogeneity and the process of interest.

Human Ecology & Relation With Different

Approaches
3. The Role of Humans:
Landscape ecology is often defined by it focus on the role of
humans in creating and affecting landscape patterns and process.
Indeed, landscape ecology is sometimes considered to be an
interdisciplinary science dealing with the interrelation between
human society and its living environment. Hence, a great deal of
landscape ecology deals with built environments, where
humans are the dominant force of landscape change. However,
modern landscape ecology, with its emphasis on the interplay
between spatial heterogeneity and ecological process, considers
humans as one of many important agents affecting landscapes,
and emphasizes both natural, semi-natural, and built landscapes.

HUMAN ECOLOGY
Ecology is the science of relationships between living organisms and
their environment. Human ecology is about relationships between
people and their environment. In human ecology the environment is
perceived as an ecosystem.
An ecosystem is everything in a specified area - the air, soil, water,
living organisms and physical structures, including everything built by
humans. The living parts of an ecosystem - microorganisms, plants and
animals (including humans) - are its biological community.
Ecosystems can be any size. A small pond in a forest is an ecosystem,
and the entire forest is an ecosystem. A single farm is an ecosystem, and
a rural landscape is an ecosystem. Villages, towns and large cities are
ecosystems. A region of thousands of square kilometres is an
ecosystem, and the planet Earth is an ecosystem.

HUMAN ECOLOGY
Although humans are part of the ecosystem, it is useful to think of
human - environment interaction as interaction between the
human social system and the rest of the ecosystem. The social
system is everything about people, their population and the
psychology and social organization that shape their behavior. The
social system is a central concept in human ecology because human
activities that impact on ecosystems are strongly influenced by the
society in which people live. Values and knowledge - which together
form our worldview as individuals and as a society - shape the way
that we process and interpret information and translate it into action.
Like ecosystems, social systems can be on any scale - from a family
to the entire human population of the planet.

HUMAN ECOLOGY

HUMAN ECOLOGY
The ecosystem provides services to the social system by moving
materials, energy and information to the social system to meet peoples
needs. These ecosystem services include water, fuel, food, materials
for clothing, construction materials and recreation. Movements of
materials are obvious; energy and information are less so. Every
material object contains energy, most conspicuous in foods and fuels,
and every object contains information in the way it is structured or
organized. Information can move from ecosystems to social systems
independent of materials.
A hunters discovery of his prey, a farmers observation of his field, a
city dwellers assessment of traffic when crossing the street, and a
refreshing walk in the woods are all transfers of information from
ecosystem to social system.

HUMAN ECOLOGY
Material, energy and information move from social system to
ecosystem as a consequence of human activities that impact the
ecosystem:
People affect ecosystems when they use resources such as water,
fish, timber and livestock grazing land.
After using materials from ecosystems, people return the materials
to ecosystems as waste.
People intentionally modify or reorganize existing ecosystems, or
create new ones, to better serve their needs.

ECO SYSTEM APPROACH

The ecosystem approach is a way of making decisions in order to
manage our activities sustainably. It recognizes that humans are part
of the ecosystem and that our activities both affect the ecosystem
and depend on it. The ecosystem approach requires:
An integrated approach that considers all ecosystem components (e.g. human
activities, habitats and species, and physical processes).

Consideration of ecosystem functions and resulting ecosystem

services.
Strong participation of stakeholders

Previous work on the ecosystem approach has tended to focus on the

first two elements; this guide focuses on stakeholder participation.

ECO SYSTEM APPROACH

Traditional management approaches have tended to be sectoral,
considering individual ecosystem components in isolation. This has
often led to poor decisions, conflict over space and resources,
environmental degradation and economic losses. In contrast, the
ecosystem approach considers our activities as part of a single
system where all sectors are integrated, allowing the wider
consequences of decisions to be determined and managed.

ECO SYSTEM APPROACH

In the past, important ecosystem services have been undervalued: they
may be hard to measure, or fall outside conventional economic markets.
However, there is growing recognition that we need to factor the
multiple services natural systems provide into our decision-making to
get the most economic and social benefit and avoid the costly
consequences
of
damaging
them.

The ecosystem approach calls for strong stakeholder participation

involving all those who have an interest in, or could be affected by,
decision-making. This is crucial, not least because the ecosystem
approach is about managing human activities. People are much more
likely to act upon a decision and change their behaviour if they
understand and accept the basis on which it was made. This is far more
likely with full and active participation.