AERIALS AND RADIO

FREQUENCY
PROPAGATION
By Farhan Saeed

AERIALS
In

any radio system information is

superimposed on to a radio frequency carrier
which is radiated into the atmosphere in the
form of electromagnetic (e-m) energy.
An aerial or antenna, is a device for either
radiating electromagnetic energy into space or
collecting electromagnetic energy from space.
This electromagnetic energy is in the form of
electric and magnetic fields, which are in turn
related to the alternating currents (ac) which
flow in the aerial.

Electro-Magnetic Wave

An EM wave consists of two fields, an oscillating

Electric field (E) and an oscillating Magnetic field
(H) which are always at right angles to one
another.
Electric Field
Magnetic
Field

Magnetic Field

Electric Field

Electro-Magnetic Wave
The

two fields are always at right angles to

one another. If the electric field is in the
vertical position the EM wave is said to be
vertically polarized.
The electro-magnetic radiation is
generated at a transmitter by means of
alternating current and is transmitted via
an antenna. It travels in an all-round
direction (omni-directional).

Frequency and wavelength

Time

1 Cycle
Wavelength

Frequency and wavelength

Frequency

is defined as the number of

complete series of changes of, for example,
an alternating current, which occur in 1
second, i.e. cycles per second. It is
measured in Hertz (Hz), i.e. 1 cycle per
second = 1 Hertz.
Wavelength is defined as the period of time it
takes to complete one cycle and is expressed
in metres.
The velocity of propagation of an
electromagnetic (radio) wave through space
is at the speed of light, i.e. 300 000 000
metres per second.

Frequency and
wavelength
Frequency

is defined as the number of

cycles to pass a point in ONE SECOND OF
TIME. It is measured in HERTZ (Hz) where 1
cycle per second = 1 Hertz.
The frequency of Electro-magnetic radiation
is related to the wavelength by the
equation:
Frequency = Velocity (m/s) / Wavelength
(m)
F = V/

Frequency and
wavelength
The

velocity of an EM wave is variable,

but for navigational aids purposes it is
taken as being constant as a speed of
300 metres in 1 millionth of a second.
(Known as a MICROSECOND). ( )
It can be seen by the formula that if the
frequency is increased, the wavelength
will decrease or vice versa.

Frequency and
wavelength
The

lower the frequency, the greater the

range, e. g., frequency of 100 kilohertz
(100 thousand Hertz) is approximately
1200 miles, whereas, a frequency of 150
MHz (150 million Hertz) gives a range of
25 miles.

Calculation

Propagation of Radio Wave

Propagation is concerned with the way that radio

waves travel between a transmitter (Tx) and a
receiver (Rx) at some distant point.
The radio frequency spectrum is divided into
major bands, i.e.

VLF
LF
MF
HF
VHF

Very Low Frequency

Low Frequency
Medium Frequency
High Frequency
Very High Frequency

Transmitter Aerial
MF
LF

VLF

Very Low Frequency

3

30 kHz
In this band the radio wave follows the
curvature of the earths surface and is
known as a ground or surface wave.
Given sufficient transmitter output power
and high aerial arrays, world-wide
communication is possible.

Very Low Frequency

Since there is not much bandwidth in this band of

the radio spectrum, only the very simplest signals
are used, such as for radionavigation.
VLF waves can penetrate water to a depth of
roughly 10 to 40 m , depending on the frequency
employed and the salinity of the water.
VLF is used to communicate with submarines
near the surface.
VLF is also used for radio navigation beacons
(alpha) and time signals (beta).
VLF is also used in electromagnetic geophysical
surveys.

Low Frequency

30 kHz 300 kHz

In this band the radio wave again follows the
curvature of the earths surface, i.e. ground or
surface wave.
However, because the frequency is now higher, the
radio wave is attenuated by the earth more quickly
and so the range is reduced to approximately 1 to 2
thousand miles dependant upon transmitter output
power.
Loran C transmissions at 100 kHz, give reliable
accurate ground wave coverage up to 1200 miles.

Low Frequency
Used
AM

for

Broadcast service
LORAN
Weather system
Time signals

Medium Frequency

300 kHz 3000 kHz

Uses ground or surface wave, but because the
frequency is now even higher, the range is reduced.
The actual range of communication now depends
upon both the transmitter output power and on the
type of information being transmitted.

MF RT 2182 kHz 150 to 200 miles,

MF DSC 2187.5 kHz approximately 400 miles
Navtex 518 kHz

The range on MF RT is less because the bandwidth

is higher and therefore susceptible to attenuation.

High Frequency
High
3

Frequency

MHz 30 MHz
The HF band is so big that we tend to
sub-divide it into those which are used
for maritime communications, i.e. 4, 6,
8, 12, 16 and 22 MHz.

Very High Frequency

30

MHz 300 MHz

On VHF, UHF and SHF bands, the radio
waves travel in straight lines and are
known as direct or space waves, i.e.
line of sight communication.
The main consideration which
determines the range obtainable is the
height of both the receiving and
transmitting aerials are above sea level,
i.e. an increase in height gives an
increase in range.

Frequency and wavelength

Any

Questions ?

Hyperbolic Line
A

hyperbolic line may be defined as a line

joining all points where the DIFFERENCE IN
DISTANCE from two places IS THE SAME.
The distance mentioned can be a
measurement of any unit, e.g., metres or
miles OR, in the case of navigational
systems, radio waves where the difference
can be measured either by phase
difference or time difference.

Hyperbolic Line

Hyperbolic Line
Long

base lines have the advantage

over short baselines because the
hyperbolic lines are nearly parallel
and therefore do not diversify as
greatly.
A ship at position P and position Q ?
Ambiguity !

Layout of a Hyperbolic
System

Time Difference
Hyperbolic

systems depend upon the fact that

if signals are transmitted from separate shore
stations, the difference in the times of their
arrival at a ship is a measure of the difference
in distance of the ship from the two stations.
The signals may be sent in pulses so that the
time between receiving the pulses may be
measured.
Loran C uses this system, and once again the
system is operated in such a way that the
Master station pulse is always received first.

Time Difference
Given

a time difference and knowing the

velocity of radio waves, the distance
difference can be found.
In a system measuring time difference
(Loran C), the hyperbolic lines are drawn
on the chart representing the time
difference in micro-seconds between
receiving the two transmissions.

Time Difference
Given

a time difference and knowing the

velocity of radio waves, the distance
difference can be found.
In a system measuring time difference
(Loran C), the hyperbolic lines are drawn
on the chart representing the time
difference in micro-seconds between
receiving the two transmissions.

Lattice chart
A

lattice chart is a chart which has a family

of hyperbolic lines drawn on it. Since the
lines cross and cut one another, it gives
the appearance of lattice work, hence the
word, lattice
In the Loran C system, the lattice lines are
drawn on a Loran chart. When the ships
position is fixed on one of these charts, the
position may be transferred to the
Admiralty chart.

Hyperbolic System
Any

Questions !