Topic Six

Chapter 4: Motivation Concepts

Learning Objectives:
1. DEFINE motivation
2. DISCUSS how work motivation affects
performance
3. DESCRIBE the key theories of motivation

Need Theories.
Theory X vs. Theory Y.
Herbergs two-factor theory
Goal setting theory
Reinforcement theory
Equity theory
Expectancy theory
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62

Defining
Defining Motivation
Motivation
Motivation
The processes that account for an individuals
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal. It influences:
Direction

Which behaviors does a

person choose to perform
In an organization?

Intensity

How hard does a person

work to perform a
chosen behavior?

Persistence

When faced with obstacles

how hard does a person keep
trying to perform a
chosen behavior successfully?
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The
The Performance
Performance Dimensions
Dimensions
Motivation is not the same as performance, but it is
an important contributing factor

Source: Adapted from M. Blumberg and C.D. Pringle, The Missing Opportunity in
Organizational Research: Some Implications for a Theory of Work Performance,
Academy of Management Review, October 1982, p. 565.

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Maslows
Needs
Maslows
Hierarchy
of
Needs Theory
Theory
NeedHierarchy
Hierarchyof
Theory
Physiological needs: The lowest-order needs, which
involve satisfying fundamental biological drives,
such as the needs for air, food, water, and shelter
Safety needs: The need to operate in an
environment that is physically and psychologically
safe and secure, free from threats of harm
Social needs: The need to be affiliative -- that is, to
be liked and accepted by others
Esteem needs: The need to achieve success and
have others recognize our accomplishments
Self-actualization needs: The need to perform at
ones maximum level of creativity and become a
valuable asset to ones organization

65

Maslows
Maslows Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs
Lower-Order Needs

Higher-Order Needs

Needs that are satisfied

externally; physiological
and safety needs. Must be
satisfied FIRST!

Self
Esteem

Needs that are satisfied

internally; social, esteem,
and self-actualization
needs. Can only be
satisfied if lower needs are
satisfied!

Social
Safety
Physiological
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Theory
Theory XX and
and Theory
Theory YY (Douglas
(Douglas McGregor)
McGregor)
Theory X
Assumes that employees
dislike work, lack ambition,
avoid responsibility, and must
be directed and coerced to
perform.

Theory Y
Assumes that employees
like work, seek
responsibility, are capable of
making decisions, and
exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed
to a goal.
67

Herzbergs
Herzbergs Two
Two Factor
Factor Theory
Theory
Motivators

Normally are intrinsic

factors (achievement,
growth, recognition etc)
leads to job satisfaction

Hygiene Factors
Extrinsic factors (pay,
physical working
conditions etc.) will
reduce job dissatisfaction;
may not necessarily lead
to satisfaction
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Comparison
Comparisonof
ofSatisfiers
Satisfiers
and
andDissatisfiers
Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing
events on the job that led to
extreme job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing
events on the job that
led to extreme job
satisfaction

Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time:
How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, SeptemberOctober 1987. Copyright
1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.

69

David
David McClellands
McClellands Theory
Theory of
of Needs
Needs
Need for Achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel, to achieve
in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to
succeed.

Need for Power (nPow)

The need to make others
behave in a way that
they would not have
behaved otherwise.

Need for Affiliation

(nAff)
The desire for
friendly and close
personal
relationships.

Bottom Line:
Individuals have
different levels of
needs in each of these
areas, and those
levels will drive their
behavior
610

Matching
Matching High
High Achievers
Achievers and
and Jobs
Jobs

611

Cognitive
Cognitive Evaluation
Evaluation Theory
Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior
that had been previously only intrinsically
rewarding tends to decrease the overall level
of motivation.
The theory may only be relevant to
jobs that are neither extremely
dull nor extremely interesting.

612

Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory (Edwin
(Edwin Locke)
Locke)
Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals, with
feedback, lead to higher performance.
Factors influencing the goals
performance relationship:
Goal commitment, adequate selfefficacy, task characteristics, and
national culture.
Self-Efficacy
The individuals belief that he or
she is capable of performing a
task.

613

Increasing self-efficacy:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Enactive Mastery
Vicarious modelling
Verbal persuasion
Arousal (psyched up)
614

Goal
Goal Setting
Setting Application:
Application: MBO
MBO
Management by Objectives (MBO)
A program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period, with
feedback on goal progress.
Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.
1. Goal
Goalspecificity
specificity
2.
2. Participative
Participativedecision
decisionmaking
making
3.
3.
4.
4.

An
Anexplicit
explicittime
timeperiod
period
Performance
Performancefeedback
feedback
615

MBO:
MBO: Cascading
Cascading of
of Objectives
Objectives

616

Why
Why MBOs
MBOs Fail
Fail
Unrealistic expectations about MBO results
Lack of commitment by top management
Failure to allocate reward properly
Cultural incompatibilities

617

Reinforcement
Reinforcement Theory
Theory
Argues that behavior is a function of its
consequences.

Assumptions:
Assumptions:
Behavior
Behavioris
isenvironmentally
environmentallycaused.
caused.
Behavior
Behaviorcan
canbe
bemodified
modified(reinforced)
(reinforced)by
by
providing
providing(controlling)
(controlling)consequences.
consequences.
Reinforced
Reinforcedbehavior
behaviortends
tendsto
tobe
berepeated.
repeated.

618

Equity
Equity Theory
Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and
outcomes with those of others and then respond
to eliminate any inequities.

Referent
Referent
Comparisons:
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-inside
Self-outside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Other-outside
619

Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (contd)
(contd)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

Change inputs (slack off)
Change outcomes (increase output)
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person
Leave the field (quit the job)
620

Justice
Justice and
and Equity
Equity Theory
Theory

621

Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory

Ethical Values and

Behaviors of
Leaders

Bottom Line
All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation
will not occur. Thus,

Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and
If they perform, they will be rewarded and
When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they
care about.
622

Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory Relationships
Relationships
EffortPerformance Relationship
The probability that exerting a given amount of
effort will lead to performance.
PerformanceReward Relationship
The belief that performing at a particular level
will lead to the attainment of a desired
outcome.
RewardsPersonal Goals Relationship
The degree to which organizational rewards
satisfy an individuals goals or needs and the
attractiveness of potential rewards for the
individual.
623

Integrating
Integrating
Contemporary
Contemporary
Theories
Theoriesof
of
Motivation
Motivation

624