Complete Material

1
CHAP 16.
SOLID SOLUTIONS
16. SOLID SOLUTIONS

When homogeneous mixtures of two or more kinds of atom occur in
the solid state they are known as solid solutions i.e. a solid solution is
simply a solution in the solid state and consists of two kinds of atoms
combined in one type of space lattice.
Eg: - 1) Brass is solid solution of copper and zinc. Composition is copper
64% and zinc 36%. Cu is solvent atom and zinc atoms are solute
atoms.
2) Ni-Cu alloys (Monel metal); Fe-C alloy (steels).
SOLID SOLUTIONS
This is one of the things that can happen when alloys such as steel,
brass and bronze are made.
Individual atoms of the alloying element can be dissolved into the
crystal structure of the main material.
If the atom takes the place of a normal atom then it is called a
substitutional defect; smaller atoms put the crystal lattice in to
tension and larger atoms put it into compression.
SOLID SOLUTIONS
Atoms that are much smaller than the majority atoms can sit in
between the lattice points and are called interstitial defects.
Either way, the stresses that these defects create in the crystal lattice
are pinning points that restrict the motion of dislocations and so
strengthen the material
16.1 SOLID SOLUTION: A solid solution is a single phase, as it is chemically

homogenous and the component atoms cannot be distinguished
physically or separated mechanically by ordinary means.
Two types of solid solution formed are:
1.Interstitial solid solutions
2.Substations solid solutions
a)Ordered.
b)Disordered

This is formed when solute atoms are very small as compared to the
solvent atoms and they are unable to substitute solvent atoms (because
of the large difference in diameter of solvent and solute atoms.) and can
only fit in to the interstices or space in crystal lattice of solvent atoms.
Atoms size is not the only factor that determines whether or not an
interstitial solid solution will form.
Small Interstitial solid solute atoms dissolve much more readily in
transition metals like (Fe, Ni, Mn, Mo, Cr, etc.) than in other metals.
Carbon forms an interstitial solid with FCC (face centered cubic) iron
during the solidification of steel.
Nitrogen also dissolves interstitial in solid steel.
2. Substitutional solid solutions

In this, there is direct substitution of one type of atom for another so
that solute atoms (Cu) enter the crystal to take positions normally
occupied by solvent atoms (e.g nickel atoms).
That is in substitutions solid solution, the atoms of the solute
substitute for the solvent in the lattice structure of the solvent.
For e.g. Atomic diameter of copper is 2.551A and that of nickel is
2.487 A and the two form Substitutional solid solutions.
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Disordered substitutional solid solution:

If the solute atoms do not occupy any specific position but are
distributed at random in the lattice structure of the solvent, then this is
known as disordered substitutions solid solution.
Ordered substitution solid solution: If the atoms of the solute material occupy similar lattice points
within the crystal structure of the solvent material, this is known as
ordered substitution solid solution
If the alloy in the disordered condition is cooled slowly, it
undergoes a rearrangement of atoms because of diffusion to produce
uniform distribution of solute and solvent atoms. This structure is known
as ordered substitutions solid solution or super lattice.
E.g.- -Cu-Zn, Au-Cu etc.
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ALLOY
Alloy is a metal, composing of a mixture of elements. Most of alloys
are composed of a base metal with small amounts of additives or
alloying elements.
The typical examples of alloys are steel/cast iron (iron base alloys)
, bronze/brass (copper base alloys),aluminum alloys, nickel base
alloys, magnesium base alloys, titanium alloys.
Alloys may be prepared by different technological
methods: melting, sintering of a powders mixture, high temperature
diffusion of an alloying element into the base metal, plasma and vapor
deposition of different elements, electroplating etc.
Alloy structure may be a single phase or a multi phase.
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Phase
Phase is a uniform part of an alloy, having a certain chemical
composition and structure, and which is separated from other alloy
constituents by a phase boundary.
An alloy phase may be in form of valence compound (substance
formed from two or more elements), with a fixed ratio determining the
composition) or in form of solid solution.
Solid solution is a phase, where two or more elements are completely
soluble in each other.
Depending on the ratio of the solvent (matrix) metal atom size and
solute element atom size, two types of solid solutions may be formed:
substitution or interstitial.
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SUBSTITUTION SOLID SOLUTION
If the atoms of the solvent metal and solute element are of similar
sizes (not more, than 15% difference), they form substitution solid
solution, where part of the solvent atoms are substituted by atoms of
the alloying element (see the picture below).
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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
If the atoms of the alloying elements are considerably smaller, than

the atoms of the matrix metal, interstitial solid solutionforms, where
the matrix solute atoms are located in the spaces between large solvent
atoms (see the picture below).
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There are three conventional types of crystal imperfections:

1.Point defects
2.Line defects
3.Planar defects
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POINT DEFECTS
The simplest point defects are as follows:

1.Vacancy missing atom at a certain crystal lattice position;
2.Interstitial impurity atom extra impurity atom in an interstitial
position;
3.Self-interstitial atom extra atom in an interstitial position;
4.Substitution impurity atom impurity atom, substituting an atom in
crystal lattice;
5.Frenkel defect extra self-interstitial atom, responsible for the
vacancy nearby.
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LINE DEFECTS
Linear crystal defects are edge and screw dislocations.

Edge dislocation is an extra half plane of atoms inserted into the
crystal lattice.
Due to the edge dislocations metals possess high plasticity
characteristics: ductility and malleability.
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THE EDGE DISLOCATION
An edge dislocation occurs when an incomplete plane of atoms is

positioned between two normal planes.
You can make a simple model by cutting one of your sheets in half
along a line between the atoms.
Now instead of moving a whole sheet at once, only a single edge
needs to be moved.
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THE EDGE DISLOCATION
The diagram shows a free edge dislocation (the dark, half-plane).

When a shear force is applied the complete plane to its left can split
by breaking the bonds of a single line of atoms maybe a few thousand
long.
This is far easier to achieve than a whole sheet at a time.
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When you look at the bonds between the two planes either side of
the half plane but beyond the dislocation you should notice that
they are stretched.
Either side of the half plane the bonds are squashed.
This means that there are tensions and compressions present and so
there are permanent stresses in the crystal lattice.
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The dislocation itself can slip gradually, one atom at a time.

You can reproduce this with your model.
Place the half sheet of atoms on the top of the stack and then place a
single whole sheet above that.
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PLANAR DEFECTS
Planar defect is an imperfection in form of a plane between uniform

parts of the material.
The most important planar defect is agrain boundary.
Formation of a boundary between two grains may be imagined as a
result of rotation of crystal lattice of one of them about a specific axis.
Depending on the rotation axis direction, two ideal types of a grain
boundary are possible:
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PLANAR DEFECTS
Tilt boundary rotation axis is parallel to the boundary plane;

Twist boundary - rotation axis is perpendicular to the boundary plane:
An actual boundary is a mixture of these two ideal types.
Grain boundaries are called large-angle boundaries if misorientation
of two neighboring grains exceeds 10-15.
Grain boundaries are called small-angle boundaries if misorientation
of two neighboring grains is 5 or less.
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PLANAR DEFECTS
Grains, divided by small-angle boundaries are also called subgrains.

Grain boundaries accumulate crystal lattice defects (vacancies,
dislocations) and other imperfections, therefore they effect on the
metallurgical processes, occurring in alloys and their properties.
Since the mechanism of metal deformation is a motion of crystal
dislocations through the lattice, grain boundaries, enriched with
dislocations, play an important role in the deformation process.
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PLANAR DEFECTS
Diffusion along grain boundaries is much faster, than throughout the

grains.
Segregation of impurities in form of precipitating phases in the
boundary regions causes a form of corrosion, associated with chemical
attack of grain boundaries.
This corrosion is called Intergranular corrosion.
http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=metals
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Intermediate phases: In binary alloy system when the chemical affinity of metal is great, their
mutual solubility becomes limited and intermediate phase are formed
rather than solid solutions.
Eg: -Cu-Al
There are two types: (a) Inter-metallic compounds of fixed composition: -They obey the usual
valance laws.
Eg: -NaCl
(b) Inter-metallic compounds of variable composition.
They do not obey the valance laws and are known as electron
compounds.
Eg: - Cu-Zn.
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16.2 Solid phases and its type: Here the solids are described in terms of their phases, such as singlephase solids, two phase solids etc. and this requires compositional
approach, which involves temperature, pressure and concentration of
chemical elements present in the solids
This is useful in material science to know the state or condition at
which the solids in question exists and how to improve the properties by
changing its from thermodynamic point of view.
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Basic terms: In the study of phase and phase diagram some terms are frequently
used. So these should be clearly defined before different aspects of the
topics are explained.
System: A system is a substance or group of substances so isolated from its
surroundings that it is totally unaffected by the surroundings and is
subjected to changes in over all composition, temperature, pressure or
total volume only to the extent allowed by the person who investigates it.
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Basic terms: .
State: The state of a system is a physical condition as defined by any
combination of quantities, which fixes the condition.
Components: The components of a system are the chemical or compounds that make
up the system.
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Basic terms: .
Phase: A phase is physically and chemically homogeneous portion of a matter.
Equilibrium: Equilibrium in a system is the state of minimum free energy under any
specified combination of overall composition, temperature, pressure and
total volume.
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Degrees of freedom: These are defined as the number of independent variables whose values
must be specified in order to exactly define the state of a system.
Solid phases: Solid, liquid & gas are quite different in their characteristics and the
freezing or at the boiling point where liquid and solid or gas can exist;
these are two homogeneous type of matter. That is each of three forms
constitutes a separate and distinct phase.
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Single and multi-phase solids: A single crystal of a material can consist of one phase only, while
polycrystalline materials may be single or multi-phase, depending upon
the nature of the individual crystals or grains present. Solid solubility of
the metals melted together to form a particular alloy. The most common
multi phase materials are the naturally occurring solids called rocks. It is
composed of two or more phases.
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Alloys: An alloy is a substance that possesses metallic property and composed

of two or more element of which at least one is metal, is called an alloy.
The base metal of an alloy is the metal present in greatest proportion,
while other constituents are called alloying elements.
Phase diagram: A phase diagram or equilibrium diagram or constituent diagram is a
graphical method of representation of the different compositions. Phase
diagrams have temperature on the vertical axis and percentage
composition by weight along horizontal axis. Phase diagram indicates the
temperature at which the solid alloy will start and finish melting and the
possible phase changes, which will occur as a result of altering
composition, or temperature.
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Phase rule:
Gibbs phase rule: This establishes the relationship between the number of degrees of
freedom (F), the number of component (C) and a number of phases (P).
Mathematical representation is F=C-P+2, That 2 stands for two variable
say temperature and pressure.
Unary Phase diagram: In unary or one component system, only temperature and pressure may
be varied and coordinates of unary phase diagrams are temperature and
pressure.
In unary, temperature is shown along x-axis.
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For one component system, the phase rule becomes

F = 1-P+2 =3-P
This implies that the maximum number of phases in equilibrium is
three when F=0. As shown figure, which has three regions, solid,
liquid and vapor. In any one of these regions or phases
temperature or pressure may be varied with no change in phase as
there are two degrees of freedom (F=3-P, i.e. F=3-1=2) for two
phases to continue to coexist only temperature or pressure can be
varied independently. The point of intersection of these lines of
phases is known as Triple point. At this point, the solid, liquid
and vapor coexist in equilibrium.
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Binary phase diagrams: In binary or two-component system, the maximum number of variables
is three.
Those are changes of temperature, pressure and concentration.
Only one concentration is required to define the composition of two
components, since the second component is found by subtracting from
unity.
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Binary phase diagrams: -
The graphical representation of such a system requires a three

dimensional diagram which is complicated.
In order to simplify it, binary phase diagrams are drawn at constant
pressure showing variations in temperature and composition only.
The phase rule reduces to
F= C - P+ 1
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CHAP 17
MASTER FILE
SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
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6.1 The solidification process of the metal: The metal begins to solidify when the temperature of liquid metal
drop below a certain critical value.
As a result the metal is transformed into crystalline state. Refer fig

in the next slide.
The figure shows the solidification process based on freezing or
cooling curve.
The first center of crystallization or nuclei appears at point m at
temperature t.
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THE SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS OF THE METAL: -
m
n
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6.1 The solidification process of the metal: As the liquid metal continues to cool, new nuclei form within the
solidified metal and the already formed crystal grow in size.
Since the freezing process is accompanied by the evolution of latent
heat of fusion solidification occurs at constant temperature at point n.
This is shown by horizontal line in the diagram.
A further drop in temperature is observed, when all the metals solidify.
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Depending on the rate of cooling the amount of impurities in the

melt, the crystal, which forms in the process of solidification, may
have dendritic, laminar needle type structure.
A single crystal can be obtained, if the temperature of the melt is

reduced slowly and material is of high degree of purity.
In major cases, tree like crystal are obtained, which are called as
dendrites.
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The nucleus has a number of equivalent crystallographic direction

along which crystal growth may occur.
The nucleus develops in form a dendritic crystal chiefly along the
direction of maximum linear rate of growth.
This results in the formation of long branches and they branch out
in various direction of the initial nucleus.
Finally the spaces between the branches are filled with the
solidifying metal.
Further freezing of the metal and the development of dendrite
crystal, all the liquid metal in the spaces are solidified.
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For example in a casting, the entire melt is not cooled at a uniform

rate.
This is due to heat removed through the walls of the mould.
This causes the melt in contact with the wall to freeze first.
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Therefore solidification moves towards the center from the nuclei

formed near to the wall.
The crystals grow in the direction of heat removal i.e. normal to mould
walls.
This results in the formation of long grains perpendicular to the walls
of the mould when the freezing is complete and thus a columnar grain
structure is formed.
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6.2The structural change in the metal with the rate-cooling curve

Cooling curve helps to determine the temperature at which the phase
changes, i.e from liquid to solid or vice versa will occur in an alloy
system .
It consists of following the temperature as the function of time as
different alloys in the system are cooled slowly.Refer Fig 6.2
Consider the cooling curve for pure iron.
Iron has many allotropic forms such as ,,, in the solid state.
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Existence of one form to other depends upon the temperature to which
iron is heated.
Referring the figure the melting point of pure iron is 1535C. At
1535C, first horizontal steps appear on the curve,
It shows transformation from the liquid state takes place at the constant
temperature.
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On freezing the melt, delta iron is formed and this has body centered
lattice with constant a=2.93A.
The second effect occurs at 1400C and corresponds to the
transformation of delta iron into gamma iron which has face centered
cubic lattice with constant a=3.63 A.
Gamma iron is paramagnetic.
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The third effect starts effect starts at 910C forming alpha iron from
gamma-iron with body centered cubic lattice having a constant a=2.9A
and it is non magnetic.
The last effect occurs at 768C and corresponding to alpha iron, which
is highly magnetic and exist at room temperature can dissolve very little
amount of carbon.
The changes said above are reversible.
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Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

An equilibrium diagram is a graphical representation of the effects of a
temperature and composition upon the phases present in an alloy.
It is constructed by plotting temperature along Y-axis and percentage
composition of the alloy along X-axis.
Iron carbon equilibrium diagram indicates the phase changes that occur
during the heating and cooling, the nature and amount of the structural
components that exist at any temperature.
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CHAP 18.0
MASTER FILE
DEFORMATION OF METAL CRYSTAL
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INTRODUCTION
The changes produced in the shape of the metal piece under the action
of the single force or a set of force is called as deformation.
18.1
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL DEFORMATION
The metal deformation is classified into two types depending upon the
nature of the strain produced during the deformation.
1. Elastic deformation
2. Plastic deformation.
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18.1 Elastic deformation:

The term elastic deformation may be defined as the process of
deformation, which appears and disappears simultaneously with the
application and removal of stress according to Hooks law.
It has been observed that whenever a stress of low magnitude is
applied to a piece of a metal, it causes displacement of atoms from their
original position.
In elastic deformation the tensile strain is due to slight elongation of
the unit cell in the direction of tensile load.
Similarly the compressive strain is due to the compressive load.
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18.1 PLASTIC DEFORMATION:
The term plastic deformation may be defined as the process of

permanent deformation, which exists in metal even after removal of the
stress.
It is due to this property that the metals may be subjected various
operations like rolling, forging, drawing, etc.
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PLASTIC DEFORMATION:
When the stress is sufficient to permanently deform the metal, it is

called plastic deformation.
Plastic deformation involves the breaking and remaking of atomic
bonds.
Plastic deformation may take place by slip, twinning or a
combination of both methods.
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18.2 COMPARISON OF ELASTIC AND PLASTIC EFORMATION
The following table gives the important difference between the plastic
and elastic deformation.
SL.NO
1
2
3
4
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
It is a deformation which appears and
disappears with the application and the
removal of stress.
It is the beginning of process of
deformation
It takes place over a short range stress strain
curve
In elastic deformation the strain reaches its
maximum value after the stress has reached
its maximum value.
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
It is permanent deformation, which exists even
after the removal of stress.
It takes place after the elastic deformation has
stopped.
It takes place over a wide range of stress strain
curve
In plastic deformation the strain occurs
simultaneously with the application of stress.
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18.3 TYPES PLASTIC DEFORMATION

Though there are a number of plastic deformations, yet the
following are important from the subject point of view:
1.Slipping
2.Twinning
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18.3 Slipping: MASTER FILE

The term slipping may be defined as the plastic deformation in which a
crystal plane moves over another due to shear stress
The process of slipping is shown in the fig 18.2
In fig a circle which indicates the arrangement of atoms in a crystals
lattice.
Whereas in the next fig the slipping of atoms along the slipping
direction is shown.
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fig 18.2
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Slipping:
It has been observed that in slipping the movement of crystal plane is
over a large inter atomic distance.
It may be noted that the atoms do not come back to their original
position even after the removal of stresses as the atoms now have new
neighbors.
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18.3 Slipping:
It has been found that the slipping occurs along the planes and
direction, in which atoms are more closely spaced and the inter atomic
spacing is least.
Such planes are known as a slip planes, and the direction as slip
direction.
The combination of slip direction and slip plane is called as the slip
system.
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Mechanism of slipping:In the slipping process, all the atoms move simultaneously.
In fig the circles indicates the atoms in the cubic lattice.
The next fig shows the process of slipping due to shear stress.
It may be noted that at any stage of slipping, a boundary can be drawn
between the slipped &unslipped regions.
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Mechanism of slipping:More over, there will be a region of mis fit along this boundary.
This misfit is called dislocation & boundary as dislocation lines.
The movement of these dislocations produce further slip (fig 18.2)
in the next slide.
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fig 18.2
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MECHANISM OF SLIPPING
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MECHANISM OF SLIPPING
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The plane of paper is the (110) plane along the line AB and many unit cells are
taken together.
Each (111) plane (plane at A, at B, at C and so on) in the twinned region moves
in shear in the [112] direction.
The first one at A moves one-third of an interatomic distance.
The second one at B moves two-third of an interatomic distance.
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Twinning:
The twinning may be defined as the plastic deformation which takes
place along the two planes due to set of force applied on a given metal
piece.
The process of twinning is shown in the fig given below.
In fig below the circles shows the arrangement of atoms before
twinning, it may be noted that the process of deformation between the
two planes AB & CD is similar to that of slipping.
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Twinning:
Where as the arrangement of atoms on either side of the twinning
planes remain unaffected (fig 18.3)
It has been observed that the metal usually deform by twinning only if
it is unable to slip.
More over the deformation produced by twinning is very small.
But the places the slip planes in more favorable orientation causing
the deformation to take place through slip.
fig 18.3
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Mechanism of twinning:
In a twining process the movement of atoms is only a fraction of inter
atomic distance.
Fig shows the circles, which indicates the arrangement of atoms.
The dashed lines AB & CD represent the plane of symmetry, from
where the twinning starts and ends respectively.
These planes are known as twinning planes or the application of shear
stress.
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Mechanism of twinning:
It has been observed that the crystals twin about the twin planes, and
the atoms in the region to the left of the twinning plane AB and right of
the twinning plane CD remains undisturbed.
Whereas in the twin region, each atoms move by a distance
proportional to its distance from the twinning plane AB.
fig 18.3
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Comparison of slipping and twinning:

The following are the some of the important difference between
slipping and twinning,
SL.N
O
1
2
3
4
SLIPPING
TWINNING
In this process, the deformation

In this process, the deformation takes
takes place due to the orientation of
place due to the sliding of the atomic
one part of crystal with respect to
plane over the other.
the other part.
In this process, the atomic
In this process, the atomic movements
movements are over a fraction of
are over large atomic distance.
atomic spacing.
It requires low stresses.
It requires higher stresses.
A threshold value of stress called
There is no such threshold value of
resolved shear stress is required for
stress in this case.
slipping to take place.
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HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS
90

Plain Carbon Steel
01/34
An alloy of iron & carbon
-Low carbon steel 0.1 0.25% of carbon
-Medium carbon steel 0.25 0.65% of carbon
-High carbon steel 0.65 1.5% of carbon
Alloy Steels
An alloy of iron, carbon, and other alloying elements
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Alloy Steels are classified in to three groups according to their uses.

-Structural steels
-hot rolled steel
-cold rolled steel
-cast steel
-Tool steels
-water hardening steel
-shock resistance steel
-cold work tool steel
-hot work tool steel
-high speed steel
-Special purpose steel
-stainless steel
-spring steel
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03/34
Low Carbon Steel

-contains up to 0.25% of carbon
-accounts for 90% of total plain carbon steel
-hardly any martensite is formed

-classified in to two groups
Carbon % up to 0.10%
Carbon % from 0.1 to 0.25%
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04/34
Low Carbon Steel

Carbon up to 0.1%
-annealing plays an important role during manufacture
of cold rolled sheets.
-a special annealing (1000-12000C) is adopted with a long
holding period for using as magnetic material.
-excellent formability
-general engineering work involve severe cold
deformation such as bending, riveting, deep drawing
-cold rolled sheets
-automobile, furniture, refrigerator industries, tin cans,
tin plates, galvanized sheets
-low cost
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05/34
Low Carbon Steel

Carbon from 0.1 0.25%
-on case carburizing, steel develops a hard and
wear resistance case with a tough core
-carburized steel always subjected to further
heat treatment to refine case, core or both
-Normalizing to be done in order to improve machinability.
-used for light duty general engineering purpose
-typical applications include ship plates, boiler plates,
cams, shafts, stay bolts, wheel hub, break housing.
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06/34
Heat treatment temperature of Low Carbon Steel
Description
composition
0.10 - 0.15% C
0.15 - 0.25% C
Annealing
Temperature(0C)
880 - 930
880 920
Normalizing
Temperature(0C)
880 - 930
880 920
Hardening
Temperature(0C)
770 - 800
770 800
Quenching media
water
Water
Carburizing
Temperature(0C)
880 - 930
880 930
Heating to 760-7800C,
followed by water
quenching
Heating to 7607800C, followed by

water quenching
150 - 200
150 - 200
Refining
treatment after
curburizing
Tempering temp.
(0C)
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07/34
Medium Carbon Steel

-contains carbon from 0.25 to 0.65%
-responds to HT is much better
-always used in heat treated conditions
-depending on their responds to HT, it can be divided in to two
0.25-0.50% carbon content
0.50-0.65% of carbon content
-Normalizing is employed for improving machinanility for the first group
-Typical example of first group include railway coupling,
driving ring and flanges, hand tools, sockets, levers, cams,
tube for bicycle, automobile and aircrafts.
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08/34

Medium Carbon Steel
Steel with 0.50-0.65% of carbon

-annealing is employed for improving machinability
-can be surface hardened by flame or induction hardening
to get hardened wear resistant case with tough core.
-typical example includes spindles of machine tools, gears,
bolts, shafts, axles, pinions, cylinder liners, cams, crank shafts,
keys, riffle barrels.
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09/34
Heat treatment temperature for Medium Carbon Steel
Composition
% of carbon
0.25 0.30
0.30 0.35
0.35 0.40
Annealing Normalizing
(0C)
(0C)
Hardening
(0C)
Quenching
medium
Tempering
(0C)
880 - 900
860 880
850 870
Oil
500 - 650
850 870
840 860
Oil
850 870
840 860
Oil
880 - 900
870 890 870 890

860 880 860 880
water
500 - 650
water
500 - 650
water
0.40 0.45
850 870 850 870
840 860 Oil

830 850
water
500 - 650
0.45 0.50
840 860 840 860
830 850 Oil

820 840
water
500 - 650
0.50 0.55
830 850 830 850
820 840 Oil

810 830
water
500 - 650
0.55 0.60
820 840 820 840
810 830 Oil

800 820
water
500 - 650
0.60 0.65
810 - 830
800 820 Oil

790 810
water
500 - 650
810 - 830
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10/34
High Carbon Steel

-carbon content varies from 0.65 to 1.5%
-steel with more than 1.3% of carbon is rarely used as they
posses brittleness
-brittleness can be reduced to some extend by sperodizing
annealing by sacrificing strength and hardness.
-steels with 0.65 to 1.0% of carbon used for making springs
-two common methods adopted for fabrication of springs
1) hot rolled and 2) cold rolled(drawn)
-springs made out of hot rolling process are subjected to
hardening and tempering
-hardening temperature mainly depend on the chemical
composition and final properties requirement.
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HEAT TREATMENT
OF COMMERCIAL STEELS
High Carbon Steel
continued
-a hardness of 56 60 HRC is obtained after hardening & tempering

-because of low hardenability, used for light springs
-high strength can be achieved by cold drawn
-very high tensile strength can be obtained by combining patenting
& cold drawn operations
-tempering at 200-2500C will result in improving elastic limit
-for enhance toughness & ductility, steel to temper at above 4000C
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12/34
Heat treatment temperature of High Carbon Spring Steel

Composition
% of carbon
Annealing
Temp(0C)
Normalizing
Temp(0C)
Hardening
Temp.(0C)
Quenching Medium
Tempering
Temp.(0C)
0.65 - 0.75%
810-830
820-850
810-830
Oil or water(depends
on Mn. content and
section thickness
400-500
0.75 - 0.85%
810-830
820-850
810-830
on Mn. content and
section thickness
400-500
0.85 - 0.95%
800-820
820-850
800-820
on Mn. content and
section thickness
400-500
0.95 -1.05%
800-820
820-850
800-820
on Mn. content and
section thickness
400-500
102
13/34
Tool Steel
Water hardening tool steel
-high carbon content as high as 1.4% C
-high carbon steel have less impact strength but
high tensile strength and hardness level
-extensively used for making tools as they are cheap
and posses good machinability
-as machining is an important property, steel are given
spheroidization annealing treatment.
-speroidized steels are subjected to water quenching
from hardening temperature.
-sometimes distortion happens.
103
14/34
Tool Steel
Water hardening tool steel - continued
-possibility of forming retained austenite in hardened
structure and grain coarsening
-to add chromium(strong carbide formation),vanadium and molybdenum
-chromium improves both hardness and hardenability
-vanadium prone to coarse graining.
-tempering can alter grain structure.
-tempering temperature 170 2200C
Application
Heavy forging hammers, forging dies
Large blanking dies, chisels, scissors, knife blades, hand hammers
Cutting dies, bending dies, milling cutters, boring tools, lathe centers.
104
15/34
Heat treatment temperatures for Water hardening tool steels

Composition
%of
carbon
Hardening
temp.(0C)
Hardness
after
hardening
(HRC)
Tempering temp(0C)
as per the use
Minimum
hardness
after
tempering
0.70 - 0.80
800 - 820
65 - 67
Between 175 275 in general
56 HRC
0.80 0.90
790 - 810
65 - 67
56 HRC
0.90 1.05
780 - 800
65 - 67
56 HRC
1.05 1.20
760 - 780
65 - 67
56 HRC
1.20 1.35
760 - 780
65 - 67
56 HRC
0.80- 0.95%C
0.15-0.3%V
790 - 810
65 - 67
Between 150-400 in general
48 HRC
0.95-1.1%C
0.15-0.3%V
780 - 800
65 - 67
48 HRC
1.10-1.4%C
0.3-0.6%Cr
0.30%V
790 - 810
65 - 67
48 HRC
105
16/34
Tool Steel
Shock resistance tool steel
-good toughness to resist shock
-carbon content kept low as 0.5 0.6%
-hardness is imparted by alloying elements
-chromium, molybdenum, tungsten are some of the alloying elements
-improve hardenability also
-water or oil hardened
-tempering temperature depends on final properties required.
-for optimum combination of toughness and hardness,
low tempering temperature is recommended.
-high tempering temp. for high toughness and low hardness
Application
Chisel, pneumatic chisel, punches, shear blades
106
17/34
Heat treatment temperature for shock resistance tool steel

composition
Hardening Quenching
temp (0C)
medium
As
quenched
hardness
HRC
Tempering
temp (0C)
Minimum
hardness after
tempering
HRC
45
0.50%C
1.5%Cr
2.5%W
900-950
oil
56 - 60
150 - 540
o.50%C
1.00%Si
0.50%Mo
840-860
870-890
Water
oil
60 62
58 - 60
150 260
150 - 260
45
0.55%C
0.80%Mn
2.00%Si
845-870
870-910
Water
oil
60 62
58 - 60
150 345
150 - 345
54
0.55%C
0.80%Mn
2.00%Si
0.40%Mo
845-870
870-910
Water
oil
60 62
58 - 60
150 345
150 - 345
54
54
54
54
107
18/34
Cold worked Tool Steel
-intended for cold applications

-non-deforming non-distorting steel
-chemical composition and hardening heat treatment is
so adjusted to have minimum distortion.
-divided in to three groups
-Oil hardening steel
-Air hardening steel
-High carbon high chromium steel
108
19/34

Oil hardening steel:
-carbon manganese steel
-chromium & tungsten added occasionally to improve hardness,
hardenability and wear resistance
-used in oil hardened and tempered condition
-enable to be shaped in complicated shapes by machining
to a high precision
-blanking and stamping dies, reamers, taps are some of the applications
Air hardening steel:
-primarily Chromium-Manganese-Molybdenum steel
-all elements are for improving hardenability
109
20/34

Air hardening steel - continued
-distortion is less than oil hardening steel
-improved wear resistance and non-deforming properties.
-applications similar to oil hardened steels.
High Carbon High Chromium steel
-contains minimum 1%C and 1.2%Cr
-will not show grain coarsening up to 10400C
-high chromium content enable the steel to develop
martensite structure on air cooling, thus minimize distortion
-chromium imparts very high hardness and abrasion resistance
due to formation of chromium carbide.
110
21/34
Heat treatment temperature for Cold work oil hardening tool steel
composition
Hardening
temp. (0C)
As-quenched
hardness
HRC
Tempering
temp. (0C)
Minimum
hardness
on
tempering
(0C)
0.90% C
1.00%Mn
0.50%W
0.50Cr
790 - 815
63 - 65
150 - 425
50
0.90%C
1.60%Mn
770 - 790
63 - 65
190 - 260
57
1.45%C
0.80%Mn
1.00%Si
0.25%Mo
790 - 815
63 - 65
150 - 425
50
1.20% C
1.75%W
0.75% Cr
790 - 830
63 - 66
100 - 300
58
111
22/34
Heat treatment temperature for Cold worked Air hardened tool steel
composition
Hardening
temp. (0C)
As-quenched
hardness
HRC
Tempering
temp. (0C)
Minimum
hardness
on
tempering
(0C)
1.00% C
1.00%Mo
5.00Cr
940 - 970
61 - 63
300 - 375
57
1.00%C
2.00%Mn
1.00% Mo
1.00%Cr
820 - 860
62 - 64
150 - 425
54
0.70%C
2.00%Mn
1.25%Mo
1.00%Cr
820 - 860
62 - 64
150 - 425
54
112
23/34
Heat treatment temperature for cold work

High Carbon High Chromium tool steel
composition
Hardening
temp (0C)
Quenching
medium
As
quenched
hardness
HRC
Temperin
g temp
(0C)
Minimum
hardness after
tempering
HRC
1.50% C
1.00%Mo
12.00%Cr
1.00%V
980 - 1025
air
61 - 63
200 - 375
58
2.25%C
12.00%Cr
950 - 980
oil
62 - 64
200 - 375
58
1.50%C
1.00%Mo
12.00%Cr
3.00%Co
980 - 1025
air
60 - 62
200 - 375
57
2.35% C
1.00%Mo
12.00% Cr
4.00% V
1010 - 1065
air
63 - 65
150
64
250
450 - 550
58
113

Hot Work Tool Steel:
24/34
Tool Steel
-classified in to three groups depending on the principle alloying elements

(Chromium base, tungsten base molybdenum base)
-employed for hot working applications such as hot forging and hot extrusion
-also used for die casting dies
-red hardness, wear resistance, erosion resistance, thermal cracking
(heat checking) due to thermal shock are the main considerations
-red hardness imparted by tungsten
-larger the tungsten content, higher the the red hardness
-chromium improves hardness and oxidation resistance
-cobalt is added to improve erosion resistance
114
25/34
Heat treatment temperature for hot work tool steel Chromium base
composition
Pre-heat
temp (0C)
Hardening
temp (0C)
Quenching
medium
Tempering
temp (0C)
Working
hardness
HRC
0.35% C
5.00% Cr
0.40% V
1.50% Mo
810 - 820
1000-1025
Air
550-650
38-54
o.35% C
5.00%Cr
1.50% Mo
1.00% V
810 - 820
1000-1050
Air
550-650
38-54
0.40% C
5.00% Cr
5.00% W
810 - 820
1000-1075
Air
600-650
40-47
0.40% C
5.00% Cr
7.00% W
810 - 820
1150-1275
Air or oil
600-650
36-49
0.40% C
7.00% Cr
7.00% W
810 - 820
1125-1275
Air or oil
550-675
45-60
115
26/34
Heat treatment temperature for hot work tool steel Tungsten base
composition
Pre-heat
temp (0C)
Hardening
temp (0C)
Quenching
medium
Tempering
temp (0C)
Working
hardness
HRC
0.35% C
3.50% Cr
9.00% V
810 - 820
1095-1260
Air or oil
550-650
38-54
o.30% C
12.00%Cr
12.00%
W
840 - 850
1200-1275
Air or oil
550-650
38-54
0.25% C
4.00% Cr
15.00% W
810 - 820
1150-1275
Air or oil
600-650
40-47
0.50% C
4.00% Cr
18.00% W
1.00% V
860 - 880
1175-1275
Air or oil or
salt
bath
600-650
36-49
116
27/34
Heat treatment temperature for hot work tool steel Molybdenum base
composition
Pre-heat
temp (0C)
Hardening
temp (0C)
Quenching
medium
Tempering
temp (0C)
Working
hardness
HRC
0.65% C
4.00% Cr
1.00% V
1.50% W
8.00% Mo
780 - 800
1090-1190
Air or oil
or
salt bath
550-650
50 - 60
0.60% C
780 - 800
1120-1220
Air or oil
or
salt bath
550-650
50 - 60
780 - 800
1090-1190
Air or oil
or
salt bath
600-650
45 - 58
4.00%Cr
2.00% V
6.00 W
5.00% Mo
0.55% C
4.00% Cr
2.00% V
8.00% Mo
117
28/34
Tool Steel
High Speed Steel
-well suited for manufacturing cutting tools which can operated at high speed
-demand high red hardness and elevated temperature wear resistance
-by adding carbide forming elements like chromium, tungsten,
vanadium, molybdenum
-alloying elements to be added so that all the carbon may
combine with them to form alloy carbide
-cobalt is added to enhance cutting ability of the tool
-material with poor machinability can be cut by this type of tool
-total alloy content vary from 20% to 40% in HSS
-carbon varies from 0.70% to 1.5%
-application includes HSS cutting tools, heavy cut tools, milling cutters,
reamers, lathe centers, wear plates
118
29/34
Tool Steels
High Speed Steel: continued
-most popular grade is 18-4-1 contains 18% Tungsten,
4% Chromium, 1% Vanadium
-heat treatment of 18-4-1 HSS is given below
2minutes
Temperature 0C
1200
850
650
550
400
4-5hours
20minutes
Tempering 1
(1hour)
Tempering 2
(1hour)
Salt bath
time
119
30/34
Tool Steel
High Speed Steel - continued
-due to high cost of tungsten, the steel has been replaced by
tungsten-molybdenum steel
-all HSS are heated to the maximum possible temperature
for hardening varying from 1150 to 13500C
-to avoid poor thermal conductivity, steels are heated in stages
-pre heat to 4000C then to 8000C, then quickly transferred
into another furnace where the maximum temp. is set.
-the holding time is 20-30 seconds for every 1mm dia or thickness
-the holding time of final temperature is maximum 5 minutes.
-salt bath furnace is preferred for quenching to avoid oxidation
120
31/34
HEAT TREATMENT
OF COMMERCIAL
STEELS
Special purpose
steels
Stainless Steel
-high alloy steel posses excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance.
-due to these, it is used in nuclear plants, power generating units,
pulp and paper manufacturing plants, food processing units,
petrochemical industries.
-classified in to three groups
-austenitic stainless steel
-ferritic stainless steel
-martensitic stainless steel
-precipitation hardening stainless steel
121
32/34
HEAT TREATMENT
OF COMMERCIAL STEELS
Special purpose steels
Stainless Steel - continued
Austenitic Stainless Steel
-posses optimum combination of strength, ductility,and toughness
-most widely used of all verities of stainless steel
-most common grade is 0.08%C, 18-20%Cr, 8-10%Ni
-annealed to 1010-11250C
-stress relieving temp. 200-4000C
-no phase transformation with temperature
-not subjected to heat treatment
122
33/34
HEAT TREATMENT
OF COMMERCIAL
STEELS
Special purpose
steel
Spring Steel
-steel with high elastic limit, toughness and fatigue strengthsuitable for springs
-high quality springs from chromium-vanadium steel
-typical steel contains 0.5%C, 10%Cr., 0.2%V, 0.4%Si, 0.7%Mn.
-oil hardened from 8600C, followed by tempering at about 5000c
-heat treated chromium vanadium steel develop high elastic limit,
toughness, resistance to fatigue and machinability.
-application- automobile and aircraft engine valve springs,
high quality laminated and coil springs for motor cars
123
34/34
Special purpose steels

Spring Steels - continued
-for medium application 0.6%C, 0.7%Si, 0.6%Mn, ).8%Cr, is used.
-oil hardened from 8300C, followed by tempering at 550-6000C
-leaf springs and helical springs are some of the applications
-most commonly employed spring steel is silicon
manganese steel nowadays
-the most used steel is 0.5%C, 0.4%Si, 0.8%Mn, 1.0%Cr
-oil hardened from 8200C followed by tempering at 400-4500C
-properties can be improved by adding 0.1-0.2% vanadium,
or 0.15%-0.25% molybdenum or both
124
125
HEAT TREATMENT
126
HEAT TREATMENT
Introduction:What is Heat Treatment?
Heat Treatment is a sequence of heating and cooling operations
designed to get the desired combination of properties in
metals and alloys in solid state.
It is an important operation in the manufacturing process
of engineering components
By heat treatment, it is possible not only to change the properties of steel,
but also possible to impart high mechanical properties suitable for
sophisticated applications.
127
HEAT TREATMENT
Micro Constituents of Steel
Ferrite:- It is a pure iron containing only 0.06% of carbon. Ferrite is
strongly magnetic at room temperature and becomes paramagnetic at 7700C
Cementite:- It is a compound of iron and carbon. It is extremely hard and brittle.
It contains 93.33% iron and 6.67% carbon. It is magnetic at room temperature
and become paramagnetic at 2100C. It is also called Iron-carbide.
Pearlite:- It is an intimate mixture of Ferrite and Cementite and made up of
alternate layers of Ferrite and Cementite. Pearlite contains 88.5% Ferrite and
11.5% of Cementite. Pearlite exists at 7230C only.
Austenite:- It is a solid solution of carbon in iron. It can dissolve up to
2% of carbon at 11480C. It is soft and ductile but stronger and less ductile
than Pearlite. It is a non-magnetic and exists at temperature above 7270C.
Ledeburite:- Similar to Pearlite, it consists of mixture of two phases, Austenite
and Cementite and it exists between 11480C and 7270C.
128
129
HEAT TREATMENT
Micro Constituents of Steel
Martensite:- It is a micro constituent of steel, which is obtained when steel is
cooled rapidly from Austenite phase to room temperature. It represents a
needle like appearance under microscope and very hard and brittle.
Bainite:- It forms when steel is cooled rapidly from Austenite phase to a
temperature of 6500C to 5000C and held at that temperature for a long time.
It is an intimate mixture of Ferrite and Cementite and appears in the form
of tiny globules.
Troostite:- When alloy steels are tempered, Martensite structure decomposes
and a new structure called Troostite is formed. It has half hardness of Martensite.
Sorbite:- When hardened steel is tempered at a temperature between
4500C to 6500C, the Martensite structure gets softened and resulting
structure is called Sorbite.
130
HEAT TREATMENT
Diagram
1394 C
0
Upper critical temperature

9100C
7230C
Cementite
+
Austenite
Austenite
Lower critical temperature
Ferrite
+
Pearlite
(less than 0.83% C

Steel)
Pearlite
0.83% C
steel
Cementite
+
Austenite
Cementite
+
Pearlite
(more than 0.83% C

Steel)
131
HEAT TREATMENT
Process
Firstly the steel is heated to a higher temperature called Austenizing temperature.

During heating, the previous structure of steel is converted in to Austenite phase.
After reaching the Austenite temperature, steel is held at this temperature for the
specified duration which is called Soaking period. Soaking results in the formation of
homogeneous Austenite through out the cross section
Steel having a homogeneous Austenite structure is cooled back to room temperature

at a particular cooling rate up on the properties required.
If necessary, steel may be reheated to a higher temperature (but lower than lower
critical temperature) and cooled again.
132
HEAT TREATMENT
Purpose
To relieve internal stresses
To reduce the hardness
To improve machinability
To restore ductility
To obtain the desired micro structure and mechanical properties.
To refine the grains.
To homogenize the micro structure
To get the desired hardness
To reduce distortion
To remove machining stress
133
HEAT TREATMENT
Types
Stress Relieving
Annealing
Normalizing
Hardening
Tempering
Case Hardening
Surface Hardening
Other special types

134
HEAT TREATMENT
Stress Relieving
Definition:
Heating the steel uniformly to a temperature below
the lower critical temperature, holding at this temperature for
sufficient time , followed by uniform cooling
-Uniform cooling is important as non-uniform cooling will result
in the development of internal stresses. Temperature can be up to 6000C
Internal stresses are developed during
-solidification of casting
-welding
-machining
-surface hammering
-cold working
-case hardening
-electroplating.
Internal stress can cause
-stress corrosion cracks
-warpage
-dimensional instability
-reduction of fatigue strength.
Internal stresses cause more problems in brittle material than a ductile material
135
HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing
Definition:
A process of heating the steel to Austenite phase, holding to a particular time,
then cooling slowly to room temperature, generally in the furnace itself by
switching off the supply.
Purpose of Annealing:
-To reduce hardness.
-To relieve internal stresses.
-To improve machinability.
-to facilitate further cold working by restoring ductility.
-to produce necessary microstructure having the desired mechanical, physical
or other properties.
136
HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing
Annealing Temperature:
Less than 0.83% C steel
8200C 8700C
0.83% C and above
7900C 8400C
Soaking Time:
One hour for sections up to 25mm thick and 30 minutes for every additional
25mm thickness
Cooling Rate:
For Plain Carbon Steel
@500C/hour
For Alloy Steel
@300C/hour
137
HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing
Types of Annealing
Full Annealing: Annealing for the sole purpose of removing the hardness
fully is known as Full Annealing.
Box Annealing: Annealing a metal in a sealed container, under condition
that minimize oxidation, is called Box Annealing.
Bright Annealing: Annealing in a protective medium such as argon or
nitrogen to prevent discolouration is called Bright Annealing.
Stress annealing: It is specially applied to cold worked steel, to prevent the
residual stresses set up due to cold working.
Spherodizing: Heating and cooling to produce a spheroidal or global form
of carbide in steel is called Spherodizing. This is generally applied to
High Carbon Steel for minimum hardness, maximum ductility and the
highest machinability.
138
HEAT TREATMENT
Annealing
Types of Annealing
Process Annealing: It is done by heating the metal to just below the LCT
and cooling slowly. It is done while sheet rolling or wire drawing in order to
soften the metal for further cold working. It is also known as
Intermediate Annealing.
Recrystallization Annealing: Heating cold worked metal below the LCT
to produce a new grain structure without phase change is called
Recrystallization Annealing
Isothermal Annealing: In this process, steel is heated to Austenizing
temperature, then rapidly cooled to a lower temperature and held at this
temperature for a few hours, then rapidly cooled in the air. This is to save
the time of slow cooling in the furnace itself which will take more time.
139
HEAT TREATMENT
Normalizing
Definition:
This is the process of heating the steel to about 400C to 500C above
upper Critical Temperature, holding for proper time and cooling it in
still air or slightly agitated air to room temperature. It is done for any
one of the following reasons
-To Improve machinability of low carbon steel
-To obtain the desired microstructure and mechanical properties.
-To refine the grains
-To homogenize the microstructure.
Normalizing Temperature
Holding time
8100C 9300C:
hr 2hr
Cooling: Can be done faster than annealing by opening the door of the
furnace at about 6000C, then allow to cool in the furnace itself.
140
HEAT TREATMENT
Comparison between Normalizing & Annealing
Normalizing
Normalized steels are harder than

annealing
Higher strength
Improves machinability of low
carbon steel
Cooling rates are not critical
Lower impact transition
temperature
Less expensive
Austenite decomposes at
relatively lower temp.
Amount of Pearlite is more
Better dispersion of FerriteCarbide aggregate.
Annealing
Annealed steels are less harder

than normalized steel
Lower strength
Improve machinability of medium
carbon steel
Cooling rates are critical
higher impact transition
temperature.
Prolonged HT time and higher
energy consumption make
annealing more expensive
Amount of Pearlite is less.
.
.
141
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Definition:
This is the process of heating the carbon content metal/alloy steel to
about 300C to 400C above upper Critical Temperature, holding for proper
time followed by rapid quenching such as quenching water, oil or salt bath.
-The main purpose of hardening steel is to increase hardness and
wear resistance so that it may be successfully used for heavy duty purposes.
-Steel becomes hard when cooled rapidly from Austenite phase
-The rapid cooling is achieved by quenching the steel in oil, water or
sometimes forced air
-In hardening, the Austenite is transferred to another phase called Martensite.
-Martensite is very hard and brittle.
-If steel is cooled slowly, Austenite will not change to Martensite
hence there will not be any hardness.
142
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Successful Hardening requires two conditions to be met
1.
2.
Formation of homogeneous Austenite

Rapid cooling of steel in a suitable media.
Hardening temperature:
Medium Carbon Steel
8200C 8700C
High Carbon Steel
7900C 8300C
Alloy Steel
10000C 13000C
Soaking Time:
One hour for every 25mm thickness
143
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Methods:
Mainly depends on quenching procedures. Various methods are:
-Conventional or Direct quenching
-Quenching in stages in sequence in different media.
-Spray quenching
-Quenching with self tempering.
-Austempering or Isothermal quenching.
-Martempering or Stepped quenching.
144
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Conventional(Direct) Quenching
Simplest and extensively used.
Quenching from hardening temp. in the quenching media.
Allowed to cool up to the temp. of quenching bath.
Severe internal stresses.
Tendency towards distortion and cracking.
Cooling rate can be controlled by adopting less severe

quenching media like oil in place of water.
145
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Quenching in stages.
Quench in water, which will have pre determined temp.,first.
The part is then transferred quickly to a milder quenching media.
Oil and air are much preferred quenching media for second quenching.
Internal stresses are very much less since severe cooling is avoided.
Spray quenching
A specific hardening method.

Cooled rapidly from hardening temp. by spraying quenchant continuously.
The rate of heat extraction is much higher as compared to direct quenching.
Water is the most commonly used quenching media.
146
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Quenching
self tempering
Also
referred as with
time quenching.
Quenched from hardening temperature.
The part is withdrawn from the bath after sometime without allowing it to
cool completely.
In this way, considerable amount of heat will be retained in the central

region.
Then cooled in a mild quenching media such as oil or air.
The core portion martensite will be tempered in second cooling, thus the
process results in a tough core with a hardened and toughened case.
147
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Austempering
It is a hardening process which consists of heating steel above
the austenitizing temperature, holding to the required time and
cooled in a bath maintained at a constant temperature of 2000c 4000C
Austenite is transformed to bainite
As this process involve transformation of austenite to bainite at a
constant temperature, it is also known as isothermal quenching
or isothermal hardening.
Comparatively thin sections can be austempered successfully.
Most of the alloy steel are not suited for this process.
Austempered components rarely need tempering.
Properties
Better ductility at high hardness levels.
Improved impact and fatigue strength
Freedom from distortion and cracks
Properties uniform throughout the section
Better mechanical properties than tempered martensite.
148
BAINITE
Named for Edgar Bain
Formed when austenite cooled rapidly enough to avoid forming
pearlite, but delayed long enough to prevent martensite
149
BAINITE
METALLURGY.
Anaggregateofironcarbideandferrite,formedfrom
austenite belowthetemperatureatwhich
pearliteformsandabovethatat
whichmartensiteforms.
150
HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening
Martempering
It is a hardening process which consists of heating steel above
the austenitizing temperature, holding to the required time and
cooled in a bath maintained at a constant temperature of 1800c 2500C
After attaining this temperature, the steel is cooled in air.
Martensite is formed during this cooling .
Any steel which can be hardened by oil quenching, can be martempered.
Alloy steels are best suited for this process.
Tempering is required after martempering.
Properties
Minimum internal stresses.
Reduced tendency towards distortion and cracks.
Improved mechanical properties.
151
152
HEAT TREATMENT Hardening

Sub Zero Treatment
A process consists of heating the steel to austenite phase,
holding for the required time and cooled suddenly in bath
having temperature between 300C and 700C.
Mechanical refrigeration unit, dry ice and liquefied gases
such as liquid nitrogen can be used for cooling to sub-zero temperature.
This process must be done just after hardening.
Tempering must be done after this process.
This process is done to convert retained austenite in to martensite.
In normal process, some austenite will retain during cooling.
This retained austenite generally reduces mechanical properties
and dimensional stability.
Employed for high carbon and high alloy steels used for making tools,
bearings, measuring gauges
Properties
Improve dimensional stability, mechanical properties and
high impact and fatigue strength.
153
HEAT TREATMENT
Tempering
Martensite obtained after hardening is extremely brittle and will result in

failure of engineering components by cracking.
Formation of Maretensite by quenching produces high internal stresses.
This will result in heavy distortion or cracking during services.
Martensite and the retained Austenite obtained after hardening are
unstable and will change over a period of time. This will result in change
in dimension and properties of the steel.
Therefore structure of hardened steel to be improved o take care of the
above drawbacks. This is done by a special heat treatment process
called Tempering.
Tempering may be defined as heating a hardened steel to a temperature

below the LCT and cooled back to room temp. to get the desired
combination of hardness and toughness.
All hardened steel must be tempered immediately after hardening.
154
HEAT TREATMENT
Case Hardening
Load bearing components require better properties at the surface
than at interior(core) for the following reasons.
Surface
-in actual service, a metal piece is never stresses uniformly
throughout its section
-rotating shafts have maximum stress at the surface than at the core
-it is the surface where concentration appears nick, scratches,
tool marks etc.
-wear, seizure and galling also occur at the surface and produce
stress raisers.
Core
-core should be relatively soft to provide resistance to brittle failure
of the component.
-should be tough enough to resist impact loads while surface should
be hard & wear resistance.
155
HEAT TREATMENT
Case Hardening
Definition:
Case hardening may be defined as a process for hardening
a ferrous material in such a manner that the surface layer known
as case is harder than the remaining material known as core.
The harder case and soft core can be achieved by two methods
-by changing the chemical composition at the surface of the steel,
which is called case hardening and
-Without changing the chemical composition at the surface,
which is called surface hardening.
156
HEAT TREATMENT
Case Hardening
In this method, surface id induced by carbon and Nitrogen

by various methods and then hardens as usual.
Different types of case hardening methods
1 Carburizing
Pack carburizing
Gas carburizing
Liquid carburizing
2 Cyaniding
157
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Pack Carburizing
-also known as solid carburizing.
-oldest method.
-component to be heat treated are packed with 80% granular coal and
20% Barium carbonate (BaCO3) as energizer in heat resistant boxes.
-heated at 9300C in electrical chamber furnace.
-heated for a specific period in furnace helps in absorption of carbon
at the outer layers.
158
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Pack Carburizing
Following reactions take place
1 Energizer decomposes to give Carbon Monoxide(CO) gas
to the steel surface
BaCO3
BaO + CO2,
CO2 +C
2CO
2. Carbon Monoxide reacts with the surface of the steel
2 CO + Fe
FeC + CO2
3. Diffusion of Carbon in to steel
4. CO2 formed in step 2 reacts with Carbon in the coal.
CO2 + C
2CO
For a given steel at a given temp., the depth of penetration is depend on
diffusion and can be related to the time t
Case depth = k into square root of t where k is a constant.
Carburizing time 6hrs to 8hrs
Case depth 1mm to 2mm
159
Gas Carburizing
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Widely used method.

Carried out in retort type, sealed quench type or continuous pusher type
furnace.
These furnaces are either gas fired or electrically heated.
Temp. varies from 8700C to 9500C
Gas atmosphere is produced from liquid (methanol) or gaseous
hydrocarbons(Propane & Methane)
An endothermic gas generator is used to supply endothermic gas.
A mixture of Propane or Methane with air is cracked in hot retort of an endo
gas generator to form carrier gas.
Carrier gas dew point is adjusted to about +40C by proper gas/air ratio.
Furnace chamber is purged with this gas to maintain a slight positive
pressure.
This interns prevent infiltration of air from atmosphere.
160
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Gas
ThisCarburizing
gas prevents oxidation of the steel during heating.
When material reaches carburizing temp., Propane and Methane is
introduces to maintain specific carbon potential.
Carbon potential is computed by measuring the dew point or carbon
dioxide by infra-red absorptometry or oxygen by an electrolytic
potential technique using a Zirconia probe.
Reaction
C3H8
CH4 + Fe
CH4 + CO2
2 CO + Fe
2CH4 + C(cracking of hydrocarbon)

Fe ( C ) + 2H2
2CO + 2H2
Fe( C ) + CO2
Carburizing occurs due to conversion of CO to CO2 through reaction No. 4

161
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Liquid Carburizing.
Also known as Salt bath carburizing.

Carburizing occurs through molten Cyanide(CN) in low carbon
steel
Pot type furnace is used.
Heated by oil or gas.
Bath temp. is maintained between 8150C and 9000C.
The life of the pot depends on quality of material, operating
temp. and mode of operation.
Mode of operation may be continuous or intermittence.
Continuous and automatic process give good end result.
Bath surface is covered with graphite or coal to reduce radiation
losses and excessive decomposition of Cyanide.
162
HEAT TREATMENT
Carburizing
Liquid Carburizing.
Heating time is short and heat transfer is rapid.

Complete uniformity of the carburized layer.
Gives a thin and clean hardened layer.(0.08mm)
Extensive safety precautions to be required to avoid explosion.
Salt mixture is named according to their carbon potential
activity.
Beside Sodium cyanide or Potassium cyanide, the bath contains
Sodium and Potassium chlorides and Barium chloride which
acts as an activator.
Reaction
BaCl2 + 2NaCN
Ba(CN)2 + Fe
Ba(CN)2 + 2NaCl
Fe( C ) + Ba(CN)2
163
HEAT TREATMENT
Case Hardening
Cyaniding:
-the parts to be heat treated are immersed in a liquid bath
(at 8000C 9600C) of Sodium Cyanide(NaCN) with the
concentration varying between 25% and 90%.
-the measured amount of air is passed through the molten bath.
-NaCN reacts with Oxygen and is oxidized.
-Carbon and Nitrogen formed in atomic form defuse in to
the steel and give thin wear resistant layer of the carbonitride.
-Usually this process takes only 30 to 90 minutes for completion.
-for obtaining case depth of 0.5 to 2mm, the temperature to be
9500C in a bath containing 8% NaCN, 82% Barium chloride
(BaCl2 and 10% Sodium chloride(NaCl)
164
HEAT TREATMENT
Surface Hardening
Different methods:
-Flame hardening
-Induction hardening
-Electron beam hardening
-Laser hardening
165
HEAT TREATMENT
Surface Hardening
Flame Hardening
Heating the job with oxy-acetylene or oxy-fuel blow pipe followed by

spraying of jet of water as coolant.
Reheating after hardening is carried out in furnace or oil bath at about
1800C 2000C for stress relieving.
Overheating to be avoided otherwise cracks may develop due to quenching
and excessive grain growth in the region just below the hardened surface.
Normally 0.3% to 0.6% of carbon content steel will be flame hardened.
Both burner and work piece can be stationary which is called stationary
method.
Burner combined with a water spray is moved on large piece which is called
progressive method.
Work piece is rotated and burner remains stationary is called spinning
method.
Burner is moved over a rotating work piece is progressive spinning method.
166
HEAT TREATMENT
Surface Hardening
Induction Hardening
Heating is achieved by electro magnetic induction.
A conductor(coil) carries an alternate current of high frequency which is

then induced in the enclosed steel part placed within the magnetic field.
Induction heating is taking place.
The heat so generated affects only the outer surface.
Heated for only a few seconds.
Immediately after heating , surface is quenched by a jet of cold water.
During this process, the original toughness and ductility remains unaffected.
167
HEAT TREATMENT
Surface Hardening
Electron Beam Hardening
Process used where other process cannot be used because of

associated distortion.
The work piece is kept in vacuum at 0.06M bar pressure.
Electron beam is focused on the surface.
Normally case depth up to 0.75mm can be achieved.
168
HEAT TREATMENT
Surface Hardening
Laser Hardening
As laser beam have high intensity, a lens is used to reduce the intensity by
producing a defocused spot or scans from 1-25mm wide.
1kW produce a circular spot whose diameter may vary from 0.5mm to
0.25mm.
Industrial lasers are available up to 20kW.
Case depth about 0.75mm is obtained in self quenching.
The effect of heat on the surrounding surface is less, leading to less

distortion.
No separate quenching media is required since quench is effected by the

mass of the surrounding unheated portion.
169
HEAT TREATMENT
Vacuum Hardening
Vacuum hardening is the process of heating and cooling the work pieces under vacuum conditions.
Nitrogen or argon is used for quenching . The best guarantee of purity in inert gases is to use a
liquid source. Inert gas will not react with metal surface.
Objective of vacuum during heat treatment is to prevent unwanted gases from contamination or
oxidizing the material.
By eliminating oxygen, parts treated may be kept bright and scale-free.
By incorporating gas or oil-quenching features in vacuum furnace, most metals and alloys can be
heat treated in vacuum furnace.
Air-hardened die alloys, air-hardened stainless steels, oil-quenched intricate parts can be heat
treated in this process because of their bright, clean appearance after treatment and little or no
polishing and sizing is required.
And also for their little or no deformation this process is preferred.
170
HEAT TREATMENT
Vacuum Hardening
Furnace operation
The furnace is pumped with inert gas to the required quantity before the heat is on.
The furnace leak to be checked.
The load is pre heated to 12000F and when the temperature is balanced, a second pre heat raises to
15000F which is maintained until equilibrium is again reached.
After that , the pressure with in the furnace raised to the required degree with high purity Nitrogen from
a liquid source.
The metal is ready to be austenitized and the temp. is raised to 18500F.
Depends on cross sectional area, soaking time to be determined.
After the soaking period, the furnace is allowed to fill with Nitrogen.
The cooling circulation fan is on automatically.
The load is allowed to cool to room temperature.
171
27/27
SURFACE TREATMENT(CLEANING &FINISHING)

Vacuum metallizing
Advantages
-a small amount of metal is consumed as a very thin film is coated.
-coating can be done on extremely costly material like gold platinum etc.
-highly reflective (mirror) and decorative surfaces can be produced
on metals, plastics textile etc quite easily and cheaply..
-can be effectively used for decorative coatings on items like
household goods, souvenirs, gift items, artificial jewellery
-for providing functionally effective coating for corrosion and thermal resistance.
172
173

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1

16. SOLID SOLUTIONS

16.1 SOLID SOLUTION: A solid solution is a single phase, as it is chemically

1.Interstitial solid solutions

1.Interstitial solid solutions

2. Substitutional solid solutions

Disordered substitutional solid solution:

SUBSTITUTION SOLID SOLUTION

INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION

If the atoms of the alloying elements are considerably smaller, than

There are three conventional types of crystal imperfections:

The simplest point defects are as follows:

Linear crystal defects are edge and screw dislocations.

THE EDGE DISLOCATION

An edge dislocation occurs when an incomplete plane of atoms is

THE EDGE DISLOCATION

The diagram shows a free edge dislocation (the dark, half-plane).

The dislocation itself can slip gradually, one atom at a time.

Planar defect is an imperfection in form of a plane between uniform

Tilt boundary rotation axis is parallel to the boundary plane;

Grains, divided by small-angle boundaries are also called subgrains.

Diffusion along grain boundaries is much faster, than throughout the

Alloys: An alloy is a substance that possesses metallic property and composed

For one component system, the phase rule becomes

Binary phase diagrams: -

The graphical representation of such a system requires a three

As a result the metal is transformed into crystalline state. Refer fig

THE SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS OF THE METAL: -

Depending on the rate of cooling the amount of impurities in the

A single crystal can be obtained, if the temperature of the melt is

The nucleus has a number of equivalent crystallographic direction

For example in a casting, the entire melt is not cooled at a uniform

Therefore solidification moves towards the center from the nuclei

6.2The structural change in the metal with the rate-cooling curve

6.2The structural change in the metal with the rate-cooling curve

6.2The structural change in the metal with the rate-cooling curve

6.2The structural change in the metal with the rate-cooling curve

Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

CLASSIFICATION OF METAL DEFORMATION

18.1 Elastic deformation:

18.1 PLASTIC DEFORMATION:

The term plastic deformation may be defined as the process of

When the stress is sufficient to permanently deform the metal, it is

18.2 COMPARISON OF ELASTIC AND PLASTIC EFORMATION

18.3 TYPES PLASTIC DEFORMATION

18.3 Slipping: MASTER FILE

The first one at A moves one-third of an interatomic distance.

The second one at B moves two-third of an interatomic distance.

Comparison of slipping and twinning:

In this process, the deformation

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

An alloy of iron & carbon

-Low carbon steel 0.1 0.25% of carbon

-Medium carbon steel 0.25 0.65% of carbon

-High carbon steel 0.65 1.5% of carbon

An alloy of iron, carbon, and other alloying elements

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

Alloy Steels are classified in to three groups according to their uses.

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMMERCIAL STEELS

Low Carbon Steel

-hardly any martensite is formed

Carbon % from 0.1 to 0.25%