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Muscles and Animal

Movement

Muscle Tissue

Smooth muscle - found in organs of internal environment (viscera)

Skeletal muscle - usually attached to tendons or bones, so when

muscles contract causes bones to move at joints

made up of long muscle fibers that contract by myofibrils

made up of highly ordered arrays of actin and myosin filaments

Muscle Tissue

Cardiac muscles

composed

of smaller, interconnected cells,

each with a single nucleus
interconnections

appear as dark lines

called intercalated disks
enable

cardiac muscles to form single

functioning unit - myocardium

Muscle Tissue

Muscle Tissue

Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle
Cells

are multinucleate

Striated

voluntary muscle

Atrophy:

muscle fibers that is not used

begins to deplete and is lost.

Hypertrophy:

muscle fibers that are used

begin to grow to accommodate strength
needs.

Use/

disuse theory: if you dont use your

muscle it is lost
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Cardiac muscle

Found only in the heart

Striated involuntary muscle

Relies on pacemaker cells (atrioventricular node) for regular

contraction

Smooth muscle tissue

Non-striated involuntary muscle

Can divide and regenerate

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Actions of Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal

muscles produce movement of

the skeleton when they contract.
attachment

to bones made by

tendons
origin

remains stationary during

contraction

insertion

attached to bone that

moves during contraction
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Actions of Skeletal Muscles

Synergists - muscles that cause same action at a joint

Antagonists - muscles that produce opposing actions

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A single skeletal muscle, such as

triceps is attached at its

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origin to a large area of bone; in this case, the humerus

At its other end, the insertion, it tapers into a glistening

white tendon which, in this case, is attached to the ulna,
one of the bones of the lower arm.

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As the triceps contract, the insertion is pulled toward the origin

and the arm is straightened or extended at the elbow. Thus the
triceps is an extensor. Because skeletal muscle exerts force only
when it contracts, a second muscle a flexor is needed to flex
or bend the joint. The biceps muscle is the flexor of the lower
arm.

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Together, the biceps and triceps make up an antagonistic pair of

muscles. Similar pairs, working antagonistically across other joints,
provide for almost all the movement of the skeleton.

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Actions of Skeletal Muscles

Isotonic contraction - muscle and all fibers

shorten in length thus force of contraction
remains relatively constant

Isometric contraction - tension is absorbed by

tendons and other elastic tissue, and muscle does
not change in length

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Muscular Contraction

I. Skeletal Muscle
A. Muscle fiber
1. Sarcolemma
2. Sarcoplasm

3. Myofibrils contractile elements

a. Actin myofilament
F actin strands
. tropomyosin
troponin (T, I, C)
b. Myosin myofilament
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4. Sarcomere
arrangement of myofibrils
a. Z disk attaches actin
b. I band actin myofilament
c. A band both actin and myosin
H zone only myosin

5. T Tubules
invagination of sarcolemma
6. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
high conc. of calcium
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Muscular Contraction, contn

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Each

skeletal muscle contains numerous

muscle fibers.
Each muscle fiber encloses 4-20
myofibrils.
Each myofibril composed of thick and
thin myofilaments.
Thick myofilaments produce A bands.
Thin myofilaments produce I bands.
Each I band divided in half by disc
of protein (Z band).

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Skeletal Muscle Organization

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Because a muscle fiber is not a single

cell, its parts are often given special
names such as
sarcolemma for plasma membrane
sarcoplasmic reticulum for endoplasmic
reticulum
sarcosome for mitochondrion
sarcoplasm for cytoplasm
nuclei and mitochondria are located just
beneath the plasma membrane
the endoplasmic reticulum extends
between the myofibrils.
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Skeletal muscle....contn

Seen from the side under the microscope,

skeletal muscle fibers show a pattern of
cross banding, which gives rise to the
other name: striated muscle.
The striated appearance of the muscle
fiber is created by a pattern of alternating
dark A bands and
light I bands.
The A bands are bisected by the H zone
The I bands are bisected by the Z line.
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Skeletal muscles...contn

Each myofibril is made up of arrays of parallel

filaments.
The thick filaments have a diameter of about 15 nm
They are composed of the protein myosin.
The thin filaments have a diameter of about 5 nm.
They are composed chiefly of the protein actin along
with smaller amounts of two other proteins:

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troponin ( troponin C, which binds Calcium, troponin T,

which binds tropomyosin, and troponin I, which binds
both actin and troponin C and therefore inhibits their
interaction)
tropomyosin.- are long filaments located in the groove
between the two chains of the actin

Each thin filaments contains 300-400 actin molecules

and 40-60 tropomyosin molecules

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Structure of a sarcomere

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Sarcomere...contn....

The thick filaments produce the dark A band.

The thin filaments extend in each direction

from the Z line. Where they do not overlap the
thick filaments, they create the light I band.

The H zone is that portion of the A band where

the thick and thin filaments do not overlap.

The entire array of thick and thin filaments

between the Z lines is called a sarcomere.
Shortening of the sarcomeres in a myofibril
produces the shortening of the myofibril and, in
turn, of the muscle fiber of which it is a part.

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Sliding Filament Mechanism of

Contraction

Sarcomere - structure of myofibril from Z line to

Z line

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smallest subunit of muscle contraction

A muscle contracts and shortens because its

myofibrils contract and shorten.

Myofilaments do not shorten, but slide deeper into

the A band.

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Structure of Actin and Myosin

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Mechanism of Muscular Contraction:

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Sliding Filament Model

Actin myofilaments sliding over myosin to shorten

sarcomeres

Actin and myosin do not change length

Shortening sarcomeres responsible for

skeletal muscle contraction

During relaxation, sarcomeres go back to the original size

(length)

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B.

Signal transmission
1. Motor neuron
2. Presynaptic terminal
3. Endplate
region of skeletal fiber where synapse occurs

4. Nicotinic receptor
C. Muscle Contraction
1. Action Potential -> sarcolemma ->T tubules
2. T tubules -> Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
3. Voltage gated Ca++ channels open
4. Ca++ -> sarcoplasm
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5. Calcium binds to troponin (C)

6. Tropomyosin is deflected
7. Active sites of actin exposed
8.
9.
10.
11.

ATP attaches to myosin head

ATP is hydrolyzed (ADP & P)
Myosin head is phosphorylated & cocks
Myosin head binds to actin (cross
bridge)

12. Myosin head dephosphorylates (head

moves) & ADP
released (power stroke)

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D. Muscle relaxation
Calcium pumped into Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

E. Phases of muscle movement

1. Lag Phase
AP in motor neuron to exposure of active sites

2. Contraction Phase
cross-bridge - power stroke

3. Relaxation Phase
calcium pumped into S. R.

4. Mechanical signal
measured as tension
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Sliding Filament Mechanism

Electron micrographs reveal cross-bridges that extend from the thick to
of Contraction
thin filaments.

Each thick filament composed of many myosin proteins packed together, and
every myosin molecule has a head region.

Each thin filament consists primarily of many globular actin proteins twisted in
a double helix.

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Sliding Filament Mechanism

of Contraction

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Before the myosin heads bind to the actin of the thin filaments, they act
as ATPase, splitting ATP into ADP and P.

activates

heads

Once

a myosin head binds to actin, it undergoes a

shape change, pulling the thin filament toward the
center of the sarcomere.
Allows

head to detach from actin and continue

cross-bridge cycle

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F. Stimulus vs contraction
all or none response
subthreshold stimulus -> no
Threshold -> AP -> contraction
increase Ca++ = increase force
G. Stimulus frequency
no refractory period
freq of AP = freq of contractions
tetanus
calcium not pumped back

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Summary of muscular
contraction
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

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Discharge of motor neuron

Release of neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine (Ach) from axon
terminal via exocytosis at the
neuromuscular junction
Binding of Ach to nicotinic receptors
Increased in Na and K conductance in
the postsynaptic/endplate membrane
Generation of endplate potential

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Summary of muscular
contraction,
6. Generation
of APcontn...
in muscle fibers - sarcolemma
7. Inward spread of depolarization along t-tubules
8. Release of Ca+ from terminal cisternae of
sarcoplasmic reticulum and diffusion to thick
and thin filaments
9. Binding of Ca+ to troponin C, uncovering the
binding sites on actin
10. Formation of cross bridges (cross-linkages)
between actin and myosin and sliding of thin
and thick filaments

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Summary of muscular
contn... of the sarcoplasm
11.contraction,
The Ca+2 concentration
is decreased by active Ca+2 uptake into
the sarcoplasmic reticulum using Ca+2
ATPase.
12. Ca+2 dissociates from troponin, and
troponin-tropomyosin complex again
inhibits contraction. Then, the muscle
relaxes and eventually can contract
again.
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Control of Muscle Contraction

When Ca++ concentration of the muscle cell

cytoplasm is low, tropomyosin inhibits crossbridge formation and the muscle is relaxed.

When Ca++ concentration is raised, Ca++ binds to

troponin.

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Control of Muscle Contraction

Role of Ca++ in contraction

When a muscle is relaxed the
myosin head cannot bind to actin
because the attachment sites are
physically blocked by tropomyosin.
In

order to contract a muscle,

troponin must move tropomyosin
away from the binding site.
complex regulated by calcium
ion concentration
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ATP is required for both contraction45

and relaxation

Is the energy supply for contraction

It is required for the sliding of the filaments which

is accompanied by bending movement of myosin
heads; Myosin ATPase splits ATP to ADP and Pi
providing energy for cocking of myosin head

Another ATP is required for the separation of actin

and myosin which relaxes the muscle (return of
head to cocked state and reattach to actin (if
Ca+2 is present)

When ATP is run down after death, muscle goes

into a state of rigor mortis.
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Neuronal control
of muscle
contraction

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Excitation-contraction
coupling
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL AND CONTRACTION
-when membrane is depolarized, tension begin
to develop
-during action potential, the membrane
potential of the muscle fiber exceeds the value
at which contraction is fully activated.

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1. TRANSVERSE TUBULE or T-tubule

-running around the perimeter of each
myofibrils at
the level of the Z-disk
-extensions of the plasma membrane
-associated with another specialized
organelle, the sarcoplasmic membrane.

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Excitation-contraction
coupling
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL AND CONTRACTION
- when membrane is depolarized, tension
begin to develop
-during action potential, the membrane
potential of the muscle fiber exceeds the
value at which contraction is fully
activated.

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1. TRANSVERSE TUBULE or T-tubule

- running around the perimeter of each
myofibrils at the level of the Z-disk
- extensions of the plasma membrane
- associated with another specialized
organelle, the sarcoplasmic membrane.

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2.SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- forms a hollow collar ,called the
terminal cisternae
- actively transport Ca from the
surrounding medium and concentrates it.
- capable of driving the concentration of
intracellular free Ca so low that
contraction is prevented.

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3.

RECEPTOR MOLECULES IN TRIADS

- electron dense particles in the part of the
SR
membrane that lies adjacent to the Ttubule.
RYANODINE RECEPTOR - tetrametric proteins
that span the SR membrane
DIHYDROPYRIDINE RECEPTOR more
precisely identified as a type of a voltagegated calcium channel-L-type channel.
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the energetics of muscle

contraction
2 processes require the expenditure of energy
1.

The hydrolysis of ATP by myosin cross-bridges as

they cyclically attach to and detach from actin
thin filament.

2.

The pumping of calcium back into the

sarcoplasmic reticulum against a Ca
concentration gradient that consumes ATP.

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Regulation of muscle contraction

A.

THE ROLE OF CALCIUM IN CROSS-BRIDGE

ATTACHMENT
-Ca plays a physiological role in muscle
contraction came from the work of Sidney Ringer
and Dudley W. Buston
- calcium chelating agents
EDTA-ethylene- diamine tetra acetic acid
EGTA-ethylene- bis/oxyethylene nitrilo
/tetra acetic acid.

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Key how calcium induces muscle

contraction

TROPOMYOSIN-is a filamentous protein that runs parallel to actin

filament

TROPONIN-is a complex of three protein

-troponin C-binds to Ca
-troponin T-binds to tropomyosin
-troponin I-binds both actin and

troponin C .

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Transduction of chemical to
mechanical energy

The most widely accepted view is that a partial rotation of the

actin bound myosin head produces force between the thick and
thin filament.

The myosin acts as an elastic cross-bridge, linking the myosin

head and the thick filament transmitting the force produced as
the head rotates on the actin filament.

The elasticity of the cross-bridge allows the rotational movement

to occur without an abrupt change in tension.

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Control of Muscle Contraction

Nerves stimulate contraction

Somatic motor neurons stimulate skeletal muscles.

Axon

extends from neuron cell

body and branches to make
synapses with a number of
muscle fibers.

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Control of Muscle Contraction

Somatic motor neuron stimulates contraction:

releasing

acetylcholine neurotransmitter

(ACh).
impulses

spread along membrane and

carried into the muscle fibers through the T
tubules

tubules conduct impulse toward the

sarcoplasmic reticulum, which releases Ca++
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Control of Muscle Contraction

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Motor

units and recruitment

set of muscle fibers innervated by all
axonal branches is defined as a motor unit
division of muscle into motor units allows
muscles strength of contraction to be
finely graded
most muscles contain motor units in a
variety of sizes
recruitment - nervous systems use of
increased numbers and sizes of motor
units to produce a stronger contraction
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Number and Size of Motor

Units

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Types of Muscle Fibers

Muscle

fiber twitches

muscle

stimulated with a single electric

shock
A

second electrical shock delivered

immediately after the first will produce a
second twitch that may partially piggyback
on the first (summation).
At

a particular frequency of stimulation,

there is no visible relaxation between
successive twitches (tetanus).
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