DISTRIBUTION OF MICROORGANISM

IN THE BIOSPHERE, DIVERSITY,

EXPLORATION METHOD, AND THEIR
POTENCY FOR HUMAN LIFE

AIR
The air is a layer of gases surrounding the planet that is
retained by Earth's gravity.
The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing
ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through
heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing
temperature extremes between day and night (the
diurnal temperature variation).
The common name given to the atmospheric gases used
in breathing and photosynthesis is air .

AIR ENVIRONMENT
Air is a special important and microbes and their
activities are of great importance in many ways since;
Of all environments, air is the simplest one and it occurs
in a single phase gas.
Air environment is instrumental in the chain of
biochemical reactions.
Air is the environment that provides oxygen necessary
for the life of living organisms.
Without air, life is not possible.

COMPOSITION OF AIR
Air is a gaseous environment.
The relative quantities of various gases in air, by
volume percentage are; Nitrogen 78 %, Oxygen
21%, Argon 0.9 %, Carbon dioxide 0.03 %,
Hydrogen 0.01%
Other gases in trace amounts
In addition to various gases, dust and condensed
vapor may also be found in air.

LAYERS OF AIR
Various layers can be recognized in the atmosphere up to a height of
about 1000km.
Although air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers,
air suitable for the survival of terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals
currently is only known to be found in Earth's troposphere and artificial
atmospheres. This layer is nearest to the earth.
In temperate regions, troposphere extends up to about 11 km whereas in
tropics up to about 16km. This layer is characterized by a heavy load of
microorganisms.
Above the troposphere, the temperature starts to increase and the
atmosphere become unsuitable for microbial growth and population.

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
1. Atmosphere :
In addition to water droplets, dust particles and other matter, air also contains
microbes. These microbes follow a particular pathway in which they are
suspended into the atmosphere which includes.
a. Launching into the air (source of the launching of airborne microbes stems
from humans, animals and vegetation)
b. Transported (by various methods including winds, machinery and people )
c. Deposited in new atmosphere/environment
d. The atmosphere can have a variety of physical characteristics, and can be
very extreme in terms of the relative humidity, temperature and radiation.
e. These factors play a huge role in what kinds of microbes will survive in the
atmosphere and how long they will stay alive.

2. Clouds
This is a second area in the air environment where bio aerosols can
exist.
Cloud water is a mixture of organic and inorganic compounds suspended
within moisture (contribution of microbial activity to clouds).
The conditions in clouds are not conducive to much life as;
a. Microbes present there must withstand freezing temperatures, the
threat of desiccation, and extreme UV rays
b. Clouds have acidic environment, with a pH ranging from 3 to 7.
Nevertheless, there are extremophile microbes which can withstand all
of these environmental pressures. Clouds serve as a transport for
these microbes, dispersing them over long distances.

3. Environmental stresses
These stresses pose a variety of problems for survival of microbes
and include;
Desiccation (it limits the amount of time that they can survive
while suspended in the air)
Humidity (it affects the survival of organisms in air)
Temperature (too hot of temperatures can denature proteins,
and too cold of temperatures can cause ice crystal formation)
Radiation (it can damage DNA within the cells) In dry whether
the microbial load of air is high while in wet weather the rain
washes the microorganisms from the air.

AIR MICROBIOLOGY = AEROMICROBIOLOGY

Aerobiology is defined as the study of life present in the air.
Aero microbiology is related to the study of environmentally
relevant microorganisms (bio aerosols).
Menurut Cox (1987) aerobiologi yaitu suatu bidang ilmu
yang mempelajari fenomena yang berkaitan dengan
mikroba, polen, spora dan sebagainya yang tersuspensi
di udara.
Aerosol yaitu kumpulan partikel yang tersuspensi
dalam suatu medium gas.

SOURCE OF BIOAEROSOL

 The atmosphere as a habitat is characterized by high

light intensities, extreme temperature variations, low
amount of organic matter and a scarcity of available
water making it a non hospitable environment for
microorganisms and generally unsuitable habitat for their
growth .
Nevertheless , substantial numbers of microbes exist
within 300-1000 feet of earths surface that have become
attached to fragments of dried leaves, straw or dust
particles light enough to be blown by wind.

AEROSOL
Component

Organics : microbes, pollen, spores,

organic gases
Inorganics: dust, inorganic gases, vapor

Physical nature

size 0,001-1000 m (0,5-30 m!!!) in

diameter
aerodynamic

BIOAEROSOL
Composition : solid, liquid, or mixture of the two
Microorganisms associated with airborne particles
Average diameter of airborne bacterial particles
> 5 m; average size of a soil borne bacterium is
0.3 1 m.

GERAK BROWN
~ gerakan tak beraturan akibat benturan
antar partikel
Gerak Brown dipengaruhi: suhu, ukuran
partikel, kelembaban udara, medan
elektromagnetik
Manusia menghirup 10 m3 udara per hari, sebagian
besar aerosol akan tertahan rongga hidung dan
nasofaring), partikel berdiameter <6 m akan
diteruskan ke paru, dan yang menetap di alveoli
merupakan partikel berdiameter 1-2m.

MICROBIAL SURVIVAL IN THE AIR

An inhospitable climate for microorganisms : the atmosphere
desiccation stress
Microorganisms that have specific mechanisms resistant to stress
environment: spore forming bacteria, molds, fungi, and cystforming protozoa
Factors influenced the ability of microorganisms to survive:
humidity, temperature, O2 content, specific ions, uv radiation,
pollutants, and AOF (air associated factors)
Viabilitas, keragaman dan sifat bioaerosol
ditentukan oleh kelembaban udara, sinar matahari,
oksigen, ozon dan partikel-partikel polutan dari
industri dan faktor udara terbuka (open air
factors, OAF)

AIR-BORNE DISEASES
Bacteria Disease

Streptococcus pyogenes - Sore throat

Corynebacterium diphtheriae - Diphtheria
Mycobacterium tuberculosis - Tuberculosis
Streptococcus pneumoniae - Pneumococcal pneumonia
Klebsiella pneumoniae - atypical pneumonia
Neisseria meningitidis - Meningococcal meningitis
Yersinia pestis - Bubonic plaque
Bordetella pertussis - Whooping cough
Haemophilus influenzae - Influenza
Nocardia asteroids - Nocardiosis

Virus Disease
Influenza virus - Influenza
Hantavirus - Pulmonary syndrome
Hepatitis virus - Hepatitis
Herpes virus - Chicken pox
Picorna virus - Common cold
Flavivirus - Dengue fever
Rubella virus - Rubella
Measles virus - Measles

Fungi Disease
Aspergillus fumigatus - Aspergillosis
Blastomyces dermatiridi - Blastomycosis
Coccidioides immitis - Coccidioidomyosis
Cryptococcus neoformans - Cryptococcosis
Histoplasma capsulatum - Histoplasmosis
Pneumocystis carinii - Pneumocystitis

EBOLA

8. PENGENDALIAN BIOAEROSOL
Ventilasi
- Untuk mencegah akumulasi partikel airborne
- Terjadi percamp antara udara intramural dan extramural
Filtrasi
- Penggunaan filter HEPA (high-efficiency particulate air)
- Mampu mencegah partikel penyebab infeksi
- Umum digunakan pada biological safety hoods
- Jarang diterapkan dlm sistem filtrasi gedung

 Kontrol biosidal (penggunaan uv germicidal

radiation)
- Penggunaan suatu perlakuan untuk membasmi mikroba airborne
- Penggunaan panas tinggi, superdehidrasi, ozonisasi, radiasi uv

Isolasi
- Penutupan lingkungan melalui penggunaan gradien udara bertekanan
(positip/negatif) dan penyegelan kedap udara
- Gradient udara negatif, contoh exhaust fan yang menggunakan HEPA
- Gradient udara positip, contoh laminar airflow cabinet

MICROORGANISMS IN
TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT

Tanah hutan pinus Area miskin Padang rumput

vegetasi
Tanah hutan
Area
miskin Padang
vegetasi
pinus
rumput
Horizon A: material tbh dg beragam tingkat dekomposisi
Horizon O: mengandung materi humus
Horizon E: lapisan eluviasi, mengalami pengkayaan
akibat pelindihan mineral
Horizon B: lapisan pelapukan batuan induk

 Struktur tanah tersusun atas 3 fase : padat, cair, gas

Biasanya tanah mengandung (volume) :
- 45% anorganik, 5% fase organik padat, 25% fase air
dan 25% fase udara
Akar tanaman dan mikroorganisme hidup dalam porus
tanah yang mengandung fase air dan fase udara
microenvironment, ditentukan oleh karakteristik tekstur
tanah dan kandungan air dalam partikel tanah,
Suplai oksigen, pergerakan material nutrien dan sel
mikroba dipengaruhi oleh jumlah air dalam ruang porus
tanah.

Size of soil particle

Area
Tanah
MIKROBIOLOGI
TANAH
permukaan
spesifik
(m2/g)

Materi Ukuran
miner
al

Materi organik dan

biologis

0,0003

Pasir

2 mm

Partikel organik

0,12

Pasir
halus

50 m

Tanah
liat
granulometrik

2 m

30

Tanah
0,2 m
liat halus

Partikel organik,
mikroba besar:
cendawan, actinomycetes, koloni
bakteria
Materi organik amorfik:
substansi humus, biopolimer
Mikroba kecil: bakteria,
spora cendawan, virus
besar
virus

Muatan elektrik permukaan tanah terutama ditentukan

oleh gugus fungsional permukaan partikel tanah liat.
Gugus-gugus fungsional ini juga merupakan mediator bagi
pelekatan sel-sel mikroba. Tanah liat dan sel mikroba
sebenarnya sama-sama bermuatan negatif, tetapi karena
akumulasi gugus bermuatan positif seperti K+, Na+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, Fe3+ dan Al3+ menyebabkan permukaan partikel tanah
liat menjadi netral sehingga mampu menjadi tempat
pelekatan mikroba.

Atmosfir tanah
Lokasi

Komposisi (% volume)
N2

Atmosfer
78,1
Permukaan tanah 78,1
yang teraerasi
baik
Tanah liat lembut >79
atau tanah jenuh

O2

CO2

20,9
18-20,5

0,03
0,3-3

~0-10

> 10

Mikroba tanah culturable 108 sel/g (> 10.000 sp bakteri) dari total
>1010 sel/g mikroba , 80-90% mikroba melekat pada partikel tanah.
~ autochthonous dan allochthonous
Mikroba berperan dalam pembentukan agregat tanah, yang memiliki
fungsi mempertahankan kelembaham dan proteksi dari predator.
Populasi berfluktuasi mengikuti pasokan nutrien, mikroba dan faktor
lingkungan.
Mikroba penghuni batuan berdasarkan kedudukannya dibedakan
(lithobiotic) sebagai hipolitik (hypholithic), endolitik (endolithic) dan
epilitik (epilithic).

The Composition of the Lithosphere

Soil is a dynamic, complex ecosystem with a vast array of
microbes, animals, and plants.
Lichens symbiotic associations between a fungus and a
cyanobacterium or green algae
produce acid that releases minerals from rocks

Humus rich moist layer of soil containing plant and animal

debris being decomposed by microbes
Rhizosphere zone of soil around plant roots contains
associated bacteria, fungi and protozoa
Mycorrhizae symbiotic organs formed between fungi and
certain plant roots
40

Insert figure 26.15

Structure of rhizosphere

41

Terrestrial Environments

1. The distribution of microorganisms in nature ecosystem

depends on the resources (nutrients) available and on the
growth conditions.
2. Temperature, pH, water availability, light, oxygen of a
habitat define the niche for each particular microorganism.

Soil particles are not homogeneous in terms of their oxygen content.

The outer zones of a small soil particle may be fully oxic, whereas
the center, only a very short distance away, can remain completely
anoxic.

A soil aggregate composed of

mineral and organic
components, showing that
localization of soil microbes.
Very few microorganisms are
found free in the soil solution;
most of them occur as
microcolonies attached to the
soil particles.

Proportion of different soil microorganisms in soil

Microbial number and biomass in cultivated field

soil 15 cm

Microbos
Bacteria

Number /g
108

Biomass(g/m3)
160

Fungi

105

200

Actinomycets

105 - 106

160

Algae

104 - 105

32

Protozoa

104

38

Main types of soil microorganisms

Agrobacterium

Alcaligenes

Arthrobacter

Bacillus

Caulobacter

Cellulomonas

Clostridium

Corynebacterium

Flavobacterium

Micrococcus

Mycobacterium

Pseudomonas

Staphylcoccus

Perubahan komposisi mikroba segera

setelah terjadi pencemaran minyak
Minggu ke- Mikroba
1, 2

Blue-green algae:

Microcoleus spp. (Saudi)

Phormidium spp. (Kuwait)
2-4

Rhodococcus, Bacillus,
Arthrobacter

>4

Pseudomonas, Streptomyces,
Thermoactinomyces,
Aspergillus, Penicillium

Dinamika populasi mikroba

Setelah pemberian pupuk
kandang

Rumput pampas

Mawar

Tragescanthia

Bakteria tanah dominan yang dapat dikultur

Organisma

Arthrobacter

Streptomyces

Pseudomonas

Bacillus

Ciri khas
Heterotrofik, aerobik, Gram
variabel, 40% bakteria tanah yang
dapat dikultur
Heterotrofik, aerobik, Gram
positif, 5-20% bakteria tanah yang
dapat dikultur
Heterotrofik atau khemolitotrofik
(menggunakan H2 dan CO), aerobik

Fungsi
Siklus nutrien dan
biodegradasi
Siklus nutrien, biodegradasi, produksi
anti-biotik
Siklus nutrien, biodegradasi termasuk
senyawa rekalsitran,
agen kontrol biologis

atau fakultatif, Gram negatif,

memiliki keragaman sifat enzim,
10-20% bakteria tanah yang dapat
dikultur
Heterotrofik (ada yang khemotrof Siklus nutrien, biodemenggunakan H2), aerobik, Gram
gradasi, agen kontrol
biologis
positif, menghasilkan endospora,
2-10% mikroba tanah yang dapat
dikultur

Fungi
Fungi termasuk mikroba eukariot, heterotrof dan
pendekomposisi utama sisa-sisa bahan organik.
Beberapa species diketahui sebagai patogen
tanaman (Fusarium, Sclerotium, Phytophthora, ,
Rhizoctonia) dan beberapa juga dikenal sebagai
antagonis patogen (Trichoderma, Gliocladium),
beberapa mampu menghasilkan antibiotik
(Penicillium, Trichoderma)

STANDING STOCK AND FUNCTION OF SOIL MICROORGANISMS

ORGANISM

STANDING STOCK
Cells/g

FUNCTION IN THE SOIL

kg/ha

True bacteria

106 109

Actinomycetes

105 - 108

0,2

Dekomposisi bhn organik (bhn rekalsitrans). Pembentukan

humus, produksi antibiotik, pembentukan remah-remah

101 - 102

454

Dekomposisi sisa2 tanaman & hewan, humus, karbohidrat,

Filamentous fungi

36,9

Dekomposisi sisa tanaman & hewan, pembentukan humus,

ikut berperan dlm pembentukan material (Heterotrophs,
chemoautotrophs), bbrp patogen tanaman, pembentukan
remah-remah

lignin dan feses. Pembentukan remah-remah. Bbrp patogen

tan dan nematocidal.
Yeast
Algae

Protozoans

Microfauna

103

Dekomposisi bhn organik. Pembentukan remah-remah

melalui sekresi gum.

102 - 104

Produksi bhn organik melalui fotosintesis. Penambatan N2

oleh blue green algae

104 - 106

Menjaga keseimbangan ekologis diantara mikroorganisme

melalui pemangsaan.

36

Peran Mikroba Tanah

Terlibat dalam proses transformasi nutrien
Dekomposisi bahan organik
Antagonisme terhadap patogen tanaman dan menjaga
kesuburan tanah (peran dalam pertanian)
Predator nematoda
Pembentukan dan perbaikan struktur tanah
Terlibat dalam degradasi pestisida
Menjaga kesetimbangan biologis

Jumlah mikroba pada rizosfer (R) tanaman

gandum dan di area non-rizosfer (S)
Mikroba

Rizosfer
(CFU* per
gr)
120x107

Nonrizosfer
(CFU per gr)
5x105

Rasio
R/S

Fungi

12x105

1x105

12

Protozoa

2,4x103

1x103

2,4

Amonifikasi

500x106

4x106

125

Denitrifikas
i

1260x105

1x105

1260

Bakteria

24

Rhizosphere Effect (R/S ratio)

The rhizosphere is the soil region in

close contact with plant roots.
Within the rhizosphere, the plant roots
exert a direct influence on the soil
bacteria. This influence is known as the
rhizosphere effect.

In the rhizosphere, microbial populations reach much higher

densities in the rhizosphere than in the free soil.

Microbial populations in the rhizosphere may benefit the plant by:

(1) removing hydrogen sulfide, which is toxic to the

plant roots
(2) increasing solubilization of mineral nutrients
needed by the plant for growth
(3) synthesizing vitamins, amino acids, auxins,
gibberellins that stimulate plant growth
(4) antagonizing potential plant pathogens through
competition and the production of antibiotics

Manfaat lumut kerak

Topik

Manfaat

Monitoring polutan
udara

Memonitor: sulfur dioksida, logam-logam berat,

radionukleotida, fluorida, hujan asam

Mempelajari
perubahan iklim

Memonitor pemanasan global, penipisan lapisan ozon,

umur lapisan batuan

Obat-obatan

Obat tradisional dan antibiotik (Usnea spp.), tonikum

dan laksatif (Cetraria islandica), obat radang
tenggorokan (Cetraria islandica, Usnea spp.)
Makanan tradisional Jepang (Umbilicaria esculenta),
komponen dalam bumbu kari India (garam masala)

Makanan
Parfum dan
perlengkapan toilet

Parfum dari Evernia prunastri dan Pseudevernia

furfuraceae

Lain-lain

Pembuatan litmus dari bahan Rocella spp., dekorasi

menggunakan Cladonia stellaris.

AQUATIC MICROBIOLOGY
Water is the dominant compound on the earth; it occupies
of the earths surface.
Continuously cycled between hydrosphere, atmosphere, and
lithosphere hydrologic cycle
Water evaporates, accumulates in the atmosphere, and returns to
the earth through condensation and precipitation.

Surface water collects in subterranean pockets forming

groundwater source, called an aquifer resurfaces through
springs, geysers, and hot vents, also tapped as primary
supply for 1/4th of water for human consumption
65

Insert figure 26.17

Hydrologic cycle

66

AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
INLAND WATER:
- FRESH WATER
- BRACKISH
MARINE WATER
(PERAIRAN EKSTRIM)

Fresh water:
1.

Habitat Lentik (lentic habitats,

standing water) :

mikroorganisme pada limnetic zone (algae,

cyanobacteria, pseudomonads)
mikroorganisme pada profundal zone
( purple and green sulfur bacteria)
mikroorganisme pada benthic zone
(anaerobic bacteria including sulfate
reducers & methanogens)

2. Habitat Lotik (lotic)

Mata
air
miskin
hara:
algae
fotosintetik~102-108 sel/ml, mikroba
heterotrof hingga (101-106 sel/ml)
Sungai: mikroba fotosintetik berkisar
100-108 sel/ml, mikroba heterotrofik
mencapai 104-109 sel per ml

Pembagian zone pada suatu danau:

zone
zone
zone
zone
zone

litoral
interfase atau lapisan neuston
limnetik
profundal
bentik

Zone Oligotrofik
Zone Eutrofik

Sinar matahari
2H2S

4H+ + 4e- + 2S

MIKROORGANISME AIR TAWAR

The Structure of Aquatic Ecosystems

Surface waters differ considerably in size, geographic
location, and physical and chemical character.
Sunlight, temperature, aeration, and dissolved nutrient
content are factors that contribute to the development of
zones.
Lake is stratified vertically into 3 zones or strata:
photic zone surface to lowest limit of sunlight penetration
profundal zone edge of the photic zone to lake sediment
benthic zone organic debris and mud forming the basin

Stratified horizontally into 2 zones:

littoral zone shoreline, relatively shallow water
limnetic zone open, deeper water

74

Insert figure 26.18

Stratification of lake

75

Marine Environments
Resembles profile of lake but has variations in salinity,
depth, temperature, hydrostatic pressure, and mixing
Contains a zone, called an estuary, where river meets the
sea; fluctuates in salinity, is very high in nutrients
Tidal wave action subjects the coastal habitat to alternate
period of submersion and exposure.
Abyssal zone extends to a depth of 10,000m; supports
communities with extreme adaptations including:
halophilic, psychrophilic, barophilic, and in some areas, anaerobes

76

Marine Water:
Habitat perairan laut ~: (1.) neuston, (2.) pelagik,
(3.) epibiotik, dan (4.) Habitat endobiotik.
Epipelagik~Gram-negatif, batang, beberapa
dengan vakuola udara; a.l: Alteromonas, Vibrio,
Marinomonas, dan Photobacterium, algae,
sianobakteria.
Lingk. oligotrofik sianobakteria seperti
Trichodesmium, Nostoc dan Nodularia penting
karena kemampuannya mengikat N dan C

Cendawan ~ 103-104 sel/ml

Virus ~ 106-109 virion per ml
Eutrofikasi yaitu peristiwa masuknya nutrien
dalam jumlah berlebih ke suatu lingkungan
perairan

Algal bloom hanya ~ spesies tunggal. Emiliania

huxleyi memberi nuansa warna putih karena
ekso-skeleton kalkareus yang dimiliki,
dinoflagelata menyebabkan warna merah yang
disebut red-tides (pasang merah)

Aquatic Communities
Microbial distribution is associated with sunlight,
temperature, oxygen levels, and available nutrients.
Photic zone is most productive-contains plankton
phytoplankton variety of photosynthetic algae and
cyanobacteria
zooplankton microscopic consumers; filter feed, prey, or
scavenge

Benthic zone supports variety of organisms including

aerobic and anaerobic bacterial decomposers.

79

 Large bodies of standing water develop thermal

stratification.
Epilimnion upper region, warmest
Hypolimnion deeper, cooler
Thermocline buffer zone between warmest and
coolest layers; ordinarily prevents the mixing of the
two
Currents, brought on by temperature change, cause
upwelling of nutrient-rich benthic sediments and
outbreaks of abundant microbial growth red tides.
80

Insert figure 26.19

Profiles of a lake

81

 Nutrient range is variable.

Oligotrophic nutrient-deficient aquatic ecosystem;
supports few microorganisms; many bacteriophage
Eutrophication addition of excess quantities of nutrients;
naturally or by effluents from sewage, agriculture or
industry; encourages heavy surface growth of algae
(bloom) which cuts off the O2 supply; disturbs the ecological
balance
Only anaerobic and facultative anaerobes will survive.
82

Source: CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 90, NO. 10, 25 MAY

2006

Absorption spectra for different

algal pigments

Distribusi bakteri
Di lautan lepas, jumlah
bakteri rendah.
Bersama dengan
fitoplankton, umumnya
berada di permukaan.
Prokaryot permukaan:
107 sel/ml

Distribusi Bakteri
Distribusi
berdasar ke
dalaman
terkait dengan
suhu dan
salinitas

Distribusi bakteri

Bersesuaian
dengan
khlorofil a

Bakteri di sedimen

Temperatur vs. Laju Pertumbuhan

Dinamika fisiko-kimia biologi pada aliran air yang menerima cemaran orga